Combination Of Stimuli Research Articles

The role of sensory experiences in evoking emotional responses in virtual reality

Abstract This study investigates the impact of multisensory stimuli—visual, auditory, tactile, and olfactory—on emotional responses in virtual reality, with a specific focus on trust and disgust. Drawing upon Plutchik’s Wheel of Emotions, this research explores how sensory modalities evoke distinct emotional reactions within a VR simulation of a spiritual experience. Eighteen participants, all with prior experience of a similar physical ritual, were immersed in a detailed virtual environment designed with high visual fidelity and a combination of physical and olfactory stimuli to replicate the spiritual setting. The study analyzed how different sensory inputs contribute to emotional engagement. Results indicated that visual and tactile stimuli significantly enhanced trust, while olfactory inputs were associated with feelings of disgust. Furthermore, multisensory integration, particularly between tactile and olfactory cues, played a pivotal role in shaping emotional intensity. This approach offers a deeper understanding of how specific sensory inputs shape emotional responses, providing valuable insights for creating emotionally immersive and authentic VR experiences, especially in culturally and spiritually significant contexts. A key contribution of this research lies in its development of a more refined method for measuring emotional responses, moving beyond the traditional focus on presence and immersion to capture the subtle emotional effects of multisensory stimuli.

Unravelling malaria latency: parasite intrinsic and environmental factors influencing dormant liver stages.

Hypnozoites - dormant Plasmodium parasites in the liver - can cause relapse infections and form a major obstacle to malaria eradication. The mechanisms controlling dormancy remain poorly understood, but hypnozoite formation and reactivation is likely regulated by a combination of parasite intrinsic factors and external stimuli. We reviewed current knowledge of Plasmodium dormancy and drew parallels with dormancy in other parasites and life-cycle stages. Epigenetic, post-transcriptional, or post-translational regulation probably jointly control hypnozoite dormancy at the intrinsic level. Additionally, environmental factors, such as vector availability, host wellbeing, and tissue microenvironment, could be instrumental to hypnozoite reactivation. A better understanding of how external stimuli influence the intrinsic reactivation switch at a mechanistic level will be required to expand the limited toolset to combat relapsing malaria.

Facile construction of polyoxometalate-polymer hybrid nanoparticles with pH/redox dual-responsiveness.

Responsive nanomaterials have emerged as promising candidates for advanced drug delivery systems (DDSs), offering the potential to precisely target disease sites and enhance treatment efficacy. To fulfil their potential, such materials need to be engineered to respond to specific variations in biological conditions. In this work, we present a series of pH/redox dual-responsive hybrid nanoparticles featuring an amphiphilic shell polymer and a pH-responsive core polymer. These nanoparticles incorporate a polyoxometalate (POM), specifically the cobalt(iii)-substituted borotungstate ([BIIIW11O39CoIII]6-), loaded through coordination chemistry between the encapsulated CoIII ions of the POM and pyridyl functional groups on the core polymer. The resulting hybrid nanoparticles show potential for controlled release with excellent stability at physiological pH, and efficient particle disassembly in response to the combination of pH and redox stimuli. Disassembly is proposed to occur following a two step mechanism. Structural rearrangement of the nanoparticle occurs on acidification followed by destabilization of the coordination bond between the polyanion and the pyridyl functionality in the core polymer following reduction. In this system, the POM acts in a novel role as a redox active structural cross-linker. These hybrid dual-responsive nanoparticles, featuring superior colloidal stability under extracellular conditions and controllable disintegration in response to the dual stimuli of acidic pH and redox conditions, provide a novel platform for the controlled intracellular release of therapeutics.

Sparse high-dimensional decomposition of non-primary auditory cortical receptive fields.

Characterizing neuronal responses to natural stimuli remains a central goal in sensory neuroscience. In auditory cortical neurons, the stimulus selectivity of elicited spiking activity is summarized by a spectrotemporal receptive field (STRF) that relates neuronal responses to the stimulus spectrogram. Though effective in characterizing primary auditory cortical responses, STRFs of non-primary auditory neurons can be quite intricate, reflecting their mixed selectivity. The complexity of non-primary STRFs hence impedes understanding how acoustic stimulus representations are transformed along the auditory pathway. Here, we focus on the relationship between ferret primary auditory cortex (A1) and a secondary region, dorsal posterior ectosylvian gyrus (PEG). We propose estimating receptive fields in PEG with respect to a well-established high-dimensional computational model of primary-cortical stimulus representations. These "cortical receptive fields" (CortRF) are estimated greedily to identify the salient primary-cortical features modulating spiking responses and in turn related to corresponding spectrotemporal features. Hence, they provide biologically plausible hierarchical decompositions of STRFs in PEG. Such CortRF analysis was applied to PEG neuronal responses to speech and temporally orthogonal ripple combination (TORC) stimuli and, for comparison, to A1 neuronal responses. CortRFs of PEG neurons captured their selectivity to more complex spectrotemporal features than A1 neurons; moreover, CortRF models were more predictive of PEG (but not A1) responses to speech. Our results thus suggest that secondary-cortical stimulus representations can be computed as sparse combinations of primary-cortical features that facilitate encoding natural stimuli. Thus, by adding the primary-cortical representation, we can account for PEG single-unit responses to natural sounds better than bypassing it and considering as input the auditory spectrogram. These results confirm with explicit details the presumed hierarchical organization of the auditory cortex.

The Impact of Selective Spatial Attention on Auditory-Tactile Integration: An Event-Related Potential Study.

Auditory-tactile integration is an important research area in multisensory integration. Especially in special environments (e.g., traffic noise and complex work environments), auditory-tactile integration is crucial for human response and decision making. We investigated the influence of attention on the temporal course and spatial distribution of auditory-tactile integration. Participants received auditory stimuli alone, tactile stimuli alone, and simultaneous auditory and tactile stimuli, which were randomly presented on the left or right side. For each block, participants attended to all stimuli on the designated side and detected uncommon target stimuli while ignoring all stimuli on the other side. Event-related potentials (ERPs) were recorded via 64 scalp electrodes. Integration was quantified by comparing the response to the combined stimulus to the sum of the responses to the auditory and tactile stimuli presented separately. The results demonstrated that compared to the unattended condition, integration occurred earlier and involved more brain regions in the attended condition when the stimulus was presented in the left hemispace. The unattended condition involved a more extensive range of brain regions and occurred earlier than the attended condition when the stimulus was presented in the right hemispace. Attention can modulate auditory-tactile integration and show systematic differences between the left and right hemispaces. These findings contribute to the understanding of the mechanisms of auditory-tactile information processing in the human brain.

Jingfang Granule promotes the tricarboxylic acid cycle to improve chronic fatigue syndrome by increasing the expression of Idh1 and Idh2.

Chronic fatigue syndrome (CFS), as a complex, multisystemic, and multisystemic disorder affecting multiple organs and systems, often accompanies by symptoms such as post-exercise discomfort, sleep disorders, cognitive difficulties, and orthostatic intolerance. Jingfang Granule (JFG) is a traditional Chinese medicine that have significant protective effects on CFS, but the mechanism is still vague. This study was designed to evaluate the protective mechanism of JFG on mice with CFS. The combined stimuli method was used to establish the mice CFS model, and JFG was orally administered. The body weight, exhaustion swimming training and tail suspension test were assayed every 7 days to evaluate the improvement of JFG on CFS. Lactic acid, adenosine triphosphate (ATP), malondialdehyde (MDA), superoxide dismutase (SOD), reactive oxygen species (ROS), IL-1β, TNF-α, IL-6 in serum and liver glycogen, muscle glycogen in muscle were analyzed. Transmission electron microscopy was used to detect mitochondrial morphology. The regulatory networks were investigated by proteomics and central carbon metabolomics, which were verified by Western blot. JFG reversed the loss of weight and reduce of exhaust swimming time (P<0.05) induced by CFS in mice, and increased the tail suspension time (P<0.05), indicating that JFG has an improving effect on CFS. Meanwhile, JFG increased the spleen index (P<0.05), decreased the thymus index (P<0.05) and cardiac index (P<0.05), inhibited the secretion of Lactic acid (P<0.05), and increased the content of liver glycogen (P<0.05), muscle glycogen (P<0.05), and ATP (P<0.05), and improved mitochondrial morphology in mice with CFS. JFG also inhibited the release of TNF-α (P<0.05), IL-1β (P<0.05) and IL-6 (P<0.05) in serum by inhibiting TLR4/NF-κB signaling pathway and NLRP3 inflammasome signaling pathway, and inhibited oxidative stress by activating Nrf2/HO-1/NQO1 axis. Integrated central carbon metabolomics, proteomics and Western blot showed that JFG intervened in CFS by increasing the expression of Idh1 (P<0.05) and Idh2 (P<0.01) to promote tricarboxylic acid (TCA) cycle. This study confirmed that JFG promoted the TCA cycle by increasing the expression of Idh1 and Idh2, and then inhibited inflammation and oxidative stress to prevent CFS injury, which provided a potential drug candidate for CFS treatment.

A PHENOMENOLOGICAL INVESTIGATION OF EARTHQUAKE EXPERIENCES: THE CASE OF THE FEBRUARY 6, 2023 MARAŞ EARTHQUAKE

This study investigates the experiences of individuals who survived the Maraş earthquake on February 6, 2023, employing a phenomenological approach to examine the multifaceted effects of the disaster. Structured interviews were conducted with 16 participants (eight women and eight men) who relocated to Bolu temporarily or permanently following the earthquake. As one of Turkey's most catastrophic seismic events, it has resulted in significant physical destruction and profound psychological and social ramifications. The majority of survivors perceived the earthquake as a form of "punishment" or "warning," interpreting it through scientific, religious, and conspiratorial frameworks. They experienced intense fear, helplessness, guilt, and a sense of victimization, recounting the event as a combination of intense auditory stimuli, darkness, cold, and mortality. The earthquake significantly altered their perspective on life, leading to increased maturity, religiosity, and heightened awareness regarding the transience of existence. Social relationships were also affected by the earthquake, with some survivors withdrawing from relatives and close acquaintances, while others formed stronger interpersonal bonds. This study underscores the complex nature of the earthquake experience, emphasizing that survivors' needs extend beyond physical reconstruction to encompass psychological, social, and economic support. Limitations include the small sample size and the geographic focus on the province of Bolu. Future research should expand to larger, more diverse populations, and consider the long-term effects of such traumatic events. These findings are critical for developing effective post-earthquake interventions and support strategies that address the comprehensive needs of survivors.

Evaluating the impact of marketing mix by using machine learning for digital marketing

This paper evaluates the causal impact of digital marketing on customers' purchase decisions by leveraging advances in machine learning. We analyze buyer behavior under various digital marketing conditions and identify key performance drivers. Our findings emphasize the pivotal role of content in digital marketing. We assess how customized content, multiple offers, and customer decisions influence buying behavior via the AIDA model. Our methodology reveals optimal combinations of content and stimuli across different stages of the AIDA model. Clearance sales significantly enhance buying decisions and conversion rates, particularly in scenarios with high engagement but low conversion. We provide insights into how marketing policies can be optimized for higher sales through targeted content strategies. The study gives an accurate measure of heterogenous treatment effects, helping companies with valuable insights. This helps us understand the importance of segmentations for assessing causal effects and improving sales. The impact of the design elements and marketing interventions is understood by observational and experimental studies. The study used heterogeneous effects of digital ad treatments by using machine learning techniques to identify endogenous treatment responses. Individual ad impact through the AIDA model was studied, measuring the effect of treatment components. The results show that the effect of digital marketing is dependent on customer engagement. Practitioners can gather valuable insights through differential effects based on engagement levels. This will help them refine targeting according to semantic and promotional signals. Contextual signals can be applied to differential promotional strategies addressing existing deficiencies in targeting.

Enhancing Deep Sleep Induction Through a Wireless In-Ear EEG Device Delivering Binaural Beats and ASMR: A Proof-of-Concept Study.

This study presents the development of a wireless in-ear EEG device designed to monitor brain activity during sleep and deliver auditory stimuli aimed at enhancing deep sleep. The device records EEG signals and plays a combined auditory stimulus consisting of autonomous sensory meridian response (ASMR) and 3 Hz binaural beats at a 60:30 dB ratio, intended to promote delta wave activity and non-rapid eye movement (NREM) stage 3 sleep. Fifteen participants completed this study, which included two consecutive nights: a baseline night and a testing night. Participants were divided into an experimental group, which received the combined ASMR and binaural beat stimulus, and a control group, which received only ASMR. The combined stimulus was delivered upon entering NREM stage 2 and replaced by ASMR when NREM stage 3 was reached. Results showed that the experimental group experienced an increase in NREM 3 sleep, a decrease in NREM 2 sleep, and a slight increase in NREM 3 latency compared to the baseline night. Although the findings are promising, further testing with a larger sample size is required to confirm the device's potential to enhance sleep quality and promote delta activity in the brain.

Gaze-based detection of mind wandering during audio-guided panorama viewing

Unlike classic audio guides, intelligent audio guides can detect users’ level of attention and help them regain focus. In this paper, we investigate the detection of mind wandering (MW) from eye movements in a use case with a long focus distance. We present a novel MW annotation method for combined audio-visual stimuli and collect annotated MW data for the use case of audio-guided city panorama viewing. In two studies, MW classifiers are trained and validated, which are able to successfully detect MW in a 1-s time window. In study 1 (n = 27), MW classifiers from gaze features with and without eye vergence are trained (area under the curve of at least 0.80). We then re-validate the classifier with unseen data (study 2, n = 31) that are annotated using a memory task and find a positive correlation (repeated measure correlation = 0.49, p < 0.001) between incorrect quiz answering and the percentage of time users spent mind wandering. Overall, this paper contributes significant new knowledge on the detection of MW from gaze for use cases with audio-visual stimuli.

Individualized post-operative prediction of cochlear implantation outcomes in children with prelingual deafness using functional near-infrared spectroscopy.

The goal of this study was to develop an objective measure and predictor of cochlear implantation (CI) outcomes using functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS) for young children with prelingual deafness. Sound-evoked hemodynamic responses were recorded from auditory and language-related cortical regions of 47 child CI recipients (35.47 ± 17.24 months of age) using fNIRS shortly after CI activation (0.26 ± 0.30 months). There were four sound conditions (natural speech, instrumental music, multi-speaker babble noise, and speech-in-noise). Post-CI auditory and verbal communication performance was evaluated using clinical questionnaires with caretakers. Both classification and individualized regression models were constructed to predict post-CI behavioral improvement from fNIRS data using support vector machine (SVM) learning algorithms. Auditory cortical responses shortly after CI hearing onset yielded highly accurate prediction of behavioral development in young CI children. For classification models, optimal prediction was achieved using cortical responses to two or more sound conditions, with the highest accuracy of 98.20% (precision = 98.17%, sensitivity = 98.96%, area under the curve of the receiver operating characteristic curve = 99.61%) obtained with the combination of speech, noise, and music stimuli. Similarly, for regression models, best prediction of individual development was achieved using three (highest r = 0.919) or four (r = 0.966) sound conditions. The predictability of cortical responses far outperformed (Cohen's d: 18.56) that of the collection of audiological and demographic parameters (classification accuracy: 0.62) under the same SVM algorithms and could not benefit from the inclusion of the latter. Machine learning models using auditory cortical hemodynamic responses shortly after CI activation were able to predict individualized post-CI behavioral improvement in children with prelingual deafness. Level 5.

The dual-feature approach-avoidance task: validity, training efficacy, and the role of contingency awareness in changing food preference

ABSTRACT The approach-avoidance task (AAT) probes tendencies contributing to unwanted behaviours, like excessive snacking, by measuring RT differences between approach and avoidance responses to different stimuli. It retrains such tendencies using repeated avoidance of appetitive stimuli and approach of healthy alternatives. The most common paradigm, the irrelevant-feature AAT, conceals these stimulus-response contingencies by requiring approach or avoidance based on features irrelevant to the tendencies (e.g. frame colour). Unfortunately, it is an unreliable measure and not always successful as a training, likely because the stimuli can be ignored. In the novel dual-feature AAT, the combination of stimulus and irrelevant feature determines responses: participants approach foods and avoid objects surrounded by frame A, and vice versa given frame B. We trained 219 online participants to approach fruit and avoid chocolate using active (7:1 stimulus-to-frame contingency) and sham (1:1 stimulus-to-frame contingency) versions of these two trainings. Compared to sham, active irrelevant-feature training was associated with more selection and desire to eat fruit, and active dual-feature training increased approach bias for fruit. Participants’ perceived rate of approaching fruit versus chocolate correlated with many outcome measures, suggesting contingency awareness plays a major role in AAT training effectiveness, challenging implicit accounts. While the dual-feature paradigm shows potential, its high error rates, RTs, and difficulty mandate improvement.

The interplay of multiple unconditioned stimuli in evaluative conditioning: A weighted averaging framework for attitude formation via stimulus co-occurrences.

Evaluative conditioning (EC) is a key effect in attitude formation, leading to changes in the liking of neutral attitude objects due to their pairing with positive or negative stimuli. Despite EC's significance, current theories and most empirical findings are limited to stimulus pairings with a single affective stimulus at a time. In contrast, social environments often involve more complex combinations of affective stimuli. In this article, we introduce a novel framework grounded in information integration research to understand how conditioned attitudes develop in the presence of multiple affective stimuli. Through 10 experiments with different designs, measures, materials, and pairing procedures, we find that individuals' conditioned attitudes follow the average valence of all affective stimuli present with a stronger weighting of negative stimuli. This weighted averaging rule bears two implications for EC in more complex stimulus combinations. First, EC effects are nonmonotonous, such that additional stimuli of the same valence do not produce incremental EC effects. Second, EC effects are interdependent, such that the impact of one stimulus is weakest when accompanied by another negative stimulus and strongest when no other affective stimulus is present. We examine different cognitive processes underlying this weighted averaging rule, including potential differences in pairing memory or changes in the affective stimuli's valence when other stimuli are present. Our findings present a novel theoretical perspective on EC and offer valuable insights into attitude change from stimulus co-occurrences in stimulus-rich environments. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2024 APA, all rights reserved).

Pupil dilation and behavior as complementary measures of fear response in Mice.

The precise assessment of emotional states in animals under the combined influence of multiple stimuli remains a challenge in neuroscience research. In this study, multi-dimensional assessments, including high-precision pupil tracking and behavioral analysis, were conducted to investigate the combined effects of fear stimuli and drug manipulation on emotional responses in mice. Mice exposed to foot shocks showed typical freezing and flight behaviors, but neither of these measures could effectively distinguish between dexmedetomidine, isoflurane, and saline groups. In contrast, the change in pupil diameter clearly distinguished the groups. Our results showed that fear stimulation could induce significant pupil dilation, and dexmedetomidine-isoflurane combined stimulation could significantly inhibit this response, but isoflurane anesthesia alone could not achieve good inhibitory effect. This further demonstrates the superiority of pupil data in resolving the effects of combined stimuli on emotional states and the potential of multidimensional assessments to refine animal disease models and drug evaluations.

Zinc deficiency impairs the development of human regulatory B cells from purified B cells

Zinc is a vital trace element, important for many different immune processes and adequate functionality. B cell development is known to be dependent on sufficient zinc supply. Recently a regulatory B cell (Breg) population has been identified, as CD19+IL-10+ B cells, able to regulate immune responses by secretion of anti-inflammatory cytokines, such as IL-10. Due to their promotion of an anti-inflammatory milieu, Bregs could reduce or might even prevent excessive pro-inflammatory responses. Hence, having and maintaining Bregs could be interesting for patients suffering from allergies, asthma, and autoimmune diseases. Therefore, understanding Breg generation, required signaling, and their developmental requirements are important. Since our group could previously show that zinc is important for regulatory T cells, we aimed to determine the effect of zinc deficiency on Breg development from human peripheral blood CD19+ B cells. We observed highest Breg generation with a combined stimulus of CD40L and the toll like receptor (TLR) ligand, CpG-ODN2006. Using this stimulus, we observed that zinc deficient medium significantly decreased Breg generation from purified B cells. This was not seen in Bregs generated from peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) without B cell enrichment suggesting a compensatory mechanism. In line with literature, our data also confirms Bregs develop from CD19+ B cells, since total CD19+ frequencies remained unchanged, while Breg frequencies varied between stimuli and zinc media conditions. Our study shows for the first time that zinc deficiency significantly impairs Breg development, which provides an important new perspective for clinical applications and therapeutic strategies.

The impact of training method on odor learning and generalization in dogs (Canis lupus familiaris).

Detection dogs are required to learn and alert to multiple different odors during training and to generalize this learning to similar odors when working. They should be both sensitive to variation in the target odors and specific enough to avoid false alerts, but how readily they achieve this is likely to depend on the training method employed. The majority of agencies train by presenting single target odors in isolation, and adding additional odors consecutively, although recent research with rats suggests intermixing the target odors concurrently throughout training may be a more effective approach. This study therefore tested the relative efficacy of intermixed training in dogs. Using an odor-detection lineup, pet dogs were trained to detect two target odors, A and B. Those allocated to the "sequential" group were trained to criterion on odor A and then trained on odor B (or vice versa), the "compound" group were trained on a mixture of AB, and the "intermixed" group trained on A and B concurrently. Each dog was then tested on all combinations of the test stimuli (A, B, and AB), as well as combinations containing a novel interferent (AC, BC, and ABC). Results revealed that dogs trained by the intermixed method made significantly more correct (true positive) indications, and significantly fewer miss (false negative) indications than the other two methods, suggesting that intermixed training is more effective than currently used alternative training methods. Thus, for improved performance and generalization, we recommend detection dog training should use an intermixed method of training. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2024 APA, all rights reserved).

A Variable-Stimulus Distortion Product Otoacoustic Emission Screening Method to Match Cochlear Place-Specific Properties.

Distortion product otoacoustic emissions (DPOAEs) are a popular screening tool for hearing loss in specific populations (e.g., newborns). Current screening protocols use stimulus conditions that are agnostic to local mechanical properties of the cochlea and are also limited to a narrow frequency range. We have recently reported locally optimized stimulus frequency ratio and level combinations for recording DPOAEs up to stimulus frequencies of 19 kHz. In normally functioning cochlea, optimized stimuli improved the signal to noise ratios and allowed the registration of higher DPOAE levels, especially at higher frequencies. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the clinical performance of these physiologically motivated, locally appropriate, stimulus parameters for a screening application to identify the presence of hearing loss. Subjects were 24 adults with sensorineural hearing loss and 31 adults with normal hearing. The cubic DPOAE was measured and analyzed up to frequencies of 16 kHz using a range of stimulus conditions. Receiver operating characteristic curves were used to identify stimulus combinations most sensitive to screening for hearing loss. Receiver operating characteristic curves demonstrated improved test efficacy for hearing loss detection when using stimulus frequency ratios and levels that are frequency-dependent and consistent with known mechanical properties of the cochlea. We propose a new DPOAE recording paradigm (variable-stimuli DP) using stimuli aligned to local cochlear properties which may improve early and accurate detection of decline in cochlear function.

Study of Peculiarities of the Formation of Behavioral Skills in Rats in the Three-Arm Maze

The aim of our experimental research was to explore the formation of behavioral skills such as active avoidance learning in different species of rats in the three-arm maze. To determine which species is the most trainable, our study used 100 white outbred, 30 Long Evans and 30 Dumbo rats. The conditioned stimulus was a combination of playing the sound and turning off the light in a randomly selected target arm of the maze. 5 sec after the buzzer started to sound the light was turned off, then an unconditioned stimulus, the electric power, was applied to non-target arm, and the light was turned on. The task of the rat was to change the arm and enter the target (safety) arm of the maze after the sound stimulus. When the task was done, the floor of non-target arm was not charged furhter and the light was turned off. The interval between conditioned/unconditioned stimulus combinations was 30 s, it took 1 month to train each rat species and 20 sessions with different combinations of stimuli were used every day. The rat was considered trained when the probability of achieving the goal within a time limit not exceeding 6 s is 70% or higher of cases. It has been found that Dumbo rats are the best animals to train quickly in large groups to respond to an irritating stimulus.

Modality and fidelity: Understanding how creative stimulus combinations impact design outcomes and process across different conceptual design phases

During conceptual design, creative stimuli are an external source of inspiration to support students’ ideation process. Although existing research has explored the roles of creative stimuli, they rarely consider the intertwined influence brought by stimuli’s multiple characteristics, and overlook variations in stimuli’s effectiveness at different design phases. To fill this gap, this research conducted a 3×3 experiment, involving 72 design students in a three-phase design process and presenting combinations of textual and visual stimuli at distinct fidelities. We assessed different stimulus combinations’ influence on creativity, and employed behavior coding and linkograph to reveal students’ behavior and cognitive patterns throughout the process. The results revealed the mutual influence between the fidelity of texts and images, and students commonly needed more concrete stimuli in later design phases. Furthermore, students provided with different stimulus combinations exhibited variations in time allocation for behaviors including task analysis, idea generation, and evaluation, and they employed distinct approaches to generate new ideas. These findings highlight the necessity for design educators to dynamically provide creative stimuli based on the design phase, educational objective, and students’ state.

Vocal usage learning and vocal comprehension learning in harbor seals

BackgroundWhich mammals show vocal learning abilities, e.g., can learn new sounds, or learn to use sounds in new contexts? Vocal usage and comprehension learning are submodules of vocal learning. Specifically, vocal usage learning is the ability to learn to use a vocalization in a new context; vocal comprehension learning is the ability to comprehend a vocalization in a new context. Among mammals, harbor seals (Phoca vitulina) are good candidates to investigate vocal learning. Here, we test whether harbor seals are capable of vocal usage and comprehension learning.ResultsWe trained two harbor seals to (i) switch contexts from a visual to an auditory cue. In particular, the seals first produced two vocalization types in response to two hand signs; they then transitioned to producing these two vocalization types upon the presentation of two distinct sets of playbacks of their own vocalizations. We then (ii) exposed the seals to a combination of trained and novel vocalization stimuli. In a final experiment, (iii) we broadcasted only novel vocalizations of the two vocalization types to test whether seals could generalize from the trained set of stimuli to only novel items of a given vocal category. Both seals learned all tasks and took ≤ 16 sessions to succeed across all experiments. In particular, the seals showed contextual learning through switching the context from former visual to novel auditory cues, vocal matching and generalization. Finally, by responding to the played-back vocalizations with distinct vocalizations, the animals showed vocal comprehension learning.ConclusionsIt has been suggested that harbor seals are vocal learners; however, to date, these observations had not been confirmed in controlled experiments. Here, through three experiments, we could show that harbor seals are capable of both vocal usage and comprehension learning.