Expression Of Stereotypes Research Articles

Form emergence and fixation of head bobbing displays in the green anole lizard (Anolis carolinensis): a reptilian model of signal ontogeny.

Signal ontogeny was examined in green anoles (Anolis carolinensis). From 1,246 head bob displays given by 114 juveniles, it was found that juveniles possessed all 3 display types (A, B, and C) described for adults and that C displays were present at hatching, but A and B displays appeared to emerge gradually from a common precursor. Durations of the head bobs and pauses that make up juvenile displays tended to be more variable (i.e., less stereotyped) than those of adult displays. However, within the juvenile class, sex, age (or size), social context, and rearing environment (field or lab) had no effect on display structure or stereotypy. Thus, in contrast to typical signal ontogeny in songbirds and mammals, components of the green anole signal repertoire are expressed from early development. Similar to signal ontogeny in altricial species, maturation is nevertheless important for the complete and stereotyped expression of the adult signal repertoire.

Perspective-taking: Decreasing stereotype expression, stereotype accessibility, and in-group favoritism.

Perspective-taking: Decreasing stereotype expression, stereotype accessibility, and in-group favoritism.

Perspective-taking: decreasing stereotype expression, stereotype accessibility, and in-group favoritism.

Using 3 experiments, the authors explored the role of perspective-taking in debiasing social thought. In the 1st 2 experiments, perspective-taking was contrasted with stereotype suppression as a possible strategy for achieving stereotype control. In Experiment 1, perspective-taking decreased stereotypic biases on both a conscious and a nonconscious task. In Experiment 2, perspective-taking led to both decreased stereotyping and increased overlap between representations of the self and representations of the elderly, suggesting activation and application of the self-concept in judgments of the elderly. In Experiment 3, perspective-taking reduced evidence of in-group bias in the minimal group paradigm by increasing evaluations of the out-group. The role of self-other overlap in producing prosocial outcomes and the separation of the conscious, explicit effects from the nonconscious, implicit effects of perspective-taking are discussed.

Violence in Biblical Narrative

Violence in Biblical Narrative René Girard Many commentators today want to show that far from being nonviolent, the Bible is really full of violence. In a sense, they are right. The representation of violence in the Bible is enormous and more vivid, more evocative, than in mythology and even Greek tragedy. If we compare Judaic texts to pagan ones, we find that the amount of represented violence is greater in the first than in the second. Some defenders of the Bible say that current criticism of its violence lacks historical perspective because it makes no allowance for the fact that in our world many people who write about the Bible have become extremely sensitive to violence, much more sensitive than at any time in the past. We should, in fact, be careful not to project modern values and attitudes back upon archaic texts. There is a lot of truth in this view, of course, but it is a poor defense of the Bible from the standpoint of religious believers. If we have to say that the Bible is full of violence because it is the product of a violent culture, how can we attribute to the Bible a positive role in the battle against violence? How can we say that reading the Bible makes us better, which is what Jews and Christians believe. There is something I like in the contemporary refusal to condone biblical violence, something refreshing and challenging, a capacity for indignation that, with a few exceptions, is lacking in standard scholarship and religious exegesis. Believers must come up with a better answer than a sociological one or they will defeat their own purpose. I think there is a better answer than reading the Bible from within the contemporary cultural milieu and, in a sense, my own work is an attempt to find that answer. [End Page 387] A good example of a book that seems scandalously violent is the Book of Psalms. Many psalms are not only violent but full of hatred and resentment. The narrator complains that he has many unjust enemies who not only destroy his reputation but threaten his life and even physically assault him. In some of the psalms the narrator is surrounded by these enemies who are about to lynch him. He curses them, he insults them; above all he asks God to rain fire and destruction on these enemies. The intensity of resentment in these psalms may well be the main reason why Nietzsche sees in the Judeo-Christian tradition a resentment which does not exist in the pagan world. These are the so-called psalms of malediction or execration. Nowadays in order to minimize their violence many Bibles call them “penitential.” They are not penitential at all but vengeful. Many traditional and scholarly commentators minimized the violence of these texts which they regarded as a stereotyped expression of anger, a collection of clichés devoid of any referent in the real world. The complete denial of the referent right now is the end product of a long process during which the reality behind all ancient texts has been more and more de-emphasized. This is a way of getting rid of the problem entirely or of turning it into a psychological or psychoanalytical problem. But some free spirits among the believers have always underlined the violence in these prayers. There are other texts in the Bible that forbid human beings to pray to God for the destruction of their enemies, and this is precisely what these psalms do. C. S. Lewis in his Reflections on the Psalms finds them shocking and does not hesitate to say so: “In some of the Psalms the spirit of hatred which strikes us in the face is like the heat from a furnace mouth. In others the same spirit ceases to be frightful only by becoming (to a modern mind) almost comic in its naïveté.” 1 Lewis finds these texts especially problematic in view of the fact that this intensity of hatred is not found in pagan writing: If we are to excuse the poets of the Psalms on the grounds that they were not Christians, we ought to be able to point...

Development of Specific Synaptic Network Functions in Organotypic Central Nervous System (CNS) Cultures: Implications for Transplantation of CNS Neural Cellsin Vivo

This article provides a broad overview of the significant roles that morphophysiologic analyses of organotypic cultures of neural tissues explantedin vitro—initiated during the 1950s—have played in stimulating the more recent development of techniques for transplantation of neural cells and tissues into specific regions of the central nervous system (CNS)in vivo.The demonstrations by Crain and co-workers in the 1950s and 1960s that fetal rodent and human CNS neurons can continue to develop a remarkable degree of mature structure and function during many months of complete isolation in culture provided crucial evidence that development of many organotypic properties of nerve cells is regulated by epigenetic factors that ensure rather stereotyped expression despite wide variations in environmental conditions. Thesein vitrostudies strongly suggested that fetal neural cells should, indeed, be capable of even more highly organotypic development after transplantationin vivo,as has been elegantly demonstrated by many of the successful CNS transplantation studies reviewed here.

Social Judgeability and the Bogus Pipeline: The Role of Naive Theories of Judgment in Impression Formation

According to social judgeability theory, people rely on naive theories of judgment to make decisions about others. Because of limited access to their cognitive processes, perceivers use meta-informational cues to estimate the validity of their judgment and misattribute the origin of their impression. In line with this hypothesis, Yzerbyt, Schadron, Leyens, and Rocher (1994) found that participants who thought that they had subliminally received individuating information felt more entitled to judge and they made polarized judgments. Experiment 1 uses a bogus pipeline procedure to examine the viability of an impression management account of Yzerbyt et al.'s (1994) data, for example, that participants judged only because they thought that they were expected to judge regardless of their private beliefs. In line with a private belief interpretation, the bogus pipeline participants replicated previous results. Moreover, participants also stereotyped the target more in the presence than in the absence of the bogus pipeline, suggesting the existence of social desirability concerns in the expression of stereotypes. Experiment 2 tested perceivers' sensitivity to judgmental contexts by avoiding any reference to person perception. The results not only replicate the social judgeability pattern but additionally show that the absence of information made participants feel even less inclined to judge in a context that does not stress social judgment so much. As a set, these findings emphasize the role of naive theories in social inference processes, as suggested by social judgeability theory.

Queer Musings on Masculinity and History

NOT LONG AFTER I first met Ed Jackson, an activist whose political roots go back to the early days of the gay liberation movement in Canada, he drew my attention to an article that appeared in the very first issue of what was then called Labour/he Travailleur. Published in 1976, To the Dartmouth Station: A Worker's Eye View of Labour History was meant to be a humorous parody of a conversation between a dockworker and a construction worker about labour history. Much of the article's humour rested upon replaying stereotypical expressions of working-class sexism, homophobia and anti-intellectualism. As Ed indicated to me, the sexist comments about women's bodies were vaguely challenged within the fictional frame of the conversation, while references to longhaired professor fags were allowed to stand as is. Ed, who I think would consider himself a friend of labour's cause, did not at the time find this piece amusing, only disappointing and irritating. In 1976, he wanted to write a letter to the editor of the journal, but, much to his regret, he never did so. While perhaps not a momentous moment in the history of homophobia, To the Dartmouth Station does say something about the still rudimentary development of sexual politics in the mid-1970s, as well as about the distance between gay politics and labour history during one of its founding moments. Clearly much has changed. Articles and book reviews in lesbian/gay history now regularly appear in

Embryonic expression and evolution of duplicated E-protein genes in Xenopus laevis: parallels with ancestral E-protein genes.

E-proteins comprise a subfamily of helix-loop-helix transcription factors that have been identified in arthropods and several chordate taxa. In mammals, there are three classes of E-protein genes (E2A, E2-2, and HEB) that encode related, and often interchangeable, gene products. We have determined that the clawed frog Xenopus laevis contains twice the number of transcriptionally active E-protein genes when compared with other vertebrate species. Based upon genomic Southern blots and nucleotide sequence comparisons, it is likely that the additional X. laevis genes arose from tetraploidization. During embryogenesis, XE2A (homologue of mammalian E2A) transcripts were broadly expressed in anterior and posterior regions of the embryo while homologues of E2-2 (XE2.2) and HEB (XE1.2) appeared in vertebrate-specific structures including the pineal gland, olfactory bulb, and brachial arches. A phylogenetic analysis of these genes and other known metazoan E-proteins suggests that there were two periods of marked E-protein gene expansion; one that predated the radiation of vertebrates, and the other that coincided with Xenopus tetraploidization. Both of these periods were characterized by the rapid evolution of E2-2 and HEB-class genes, but not of E2A. We propose that the former genes acquired new or specialized roles during early chordate evolution and also more recently in Xenopus, as reflected by the stereotypic expression patterns of these genes during X. laevis development.

Automatic and controlled processes in stereotype priming.

The experiments in this article were conducted to observe the automatic activation of gender stereo- types and to assess theoretically specified conditions under which such stereotype priming may be moderated. Across 4 experiments, 3 patterns of data were observed: (a) evidence of stereotype prim- ing under baseline conditions of intention and high cognitive constraints, (b) significant reduction of stereotype priming when a counterstereotype intention was formed even though cognitive con- straints were high, and (c) complete reversal of stereotype priming when a counterstereotype inten- tion was formed and cognitive constraints were low. These data support proposals that stereotypes may be automatically activated as well as proposals that perceivers can control and even eliminate such effects. That perceiver intentions and cognitive resources may be im- portant factors in the activation and influence of stereotypes has important theoretical and practical implications. For theory, an examination of the controllability of stereotyping can inform one about the conditions under which perceivers can and will oppose an automatic process. Whether perceivers are able to control the influence of stereotypes on their response, in turn, has implications for a variety of situations in which stereotypes can have serious consequences. However, little research has ex- amined the role of perceiver intentions and cognitive con- straints in determining the operation of automatic and con- trolled processes in stereotyping with procedures established to reveal the interplay of these opposing processes. The purpose of this research was twofold: (a) to examine the automatic processes that may underlie stereotyping and (b) to examine the role of intention and cognitive resources in moder- ating the influence of such processes on response. The first goal of the research was to improve and extend initial demonstra- tions of the automaticity with which stereotypes may be primed, as revealed by a semantic priming procedure developed for such a purpose. A second, more important goal of the pres- ent research was to provide an assessment of the conditions un- der which automatic processes need not result in a stereotypic response. The priming procedures used in the present research readily permit observation of competing tendencies toward the automatic expression of stereotypes and the control that may be exerted against such expression. An examination of these opposing processes in action allows much to be learned about the conditions that facilitate and inhibit stereotyping. In light of the present research goals, it is useful to consider the stereotyping process in more detail and to determine where automatic and controlled processes might have an effect. Sev- eral models of stereotyping distinguish between stereotype acti- vation (categorization) and stereotype application as sequential steps in stereotyping (Brewer, 1988; Fiske & Neuberg, 1990; Gilbert & Hixon, 1991 ). That is, stereotypes cannot be used in judgment if those stereotypes have not been previously acti- vated by situational cues, such as the target's skin color or cloth- ing. Hence, stereotype activation is a necessary but not a suffi- cient step in stereotyping. For the stereotyping process to be

Mood and the expression of ethnic stereotypes.

Four studies demonstrated that when individuals are in a negative mood, they are especially likely to attribute stereotypes that they consider to be very unfavorable to certain ethnic groups. The ethnic groups that were most consistently affected were Native Indian, Pakistani, and Arabic people. In Studies I and 2, it was shown that the effect is obtained with 2 different types of mood induction procedures and for individuals of various ethnic backgrounds. In Studies 3 and 4, it was found that mood strongly influences the interpretation of stereotypes typically attributed to the groups ; it may also have a weaker effect on the actual type of stereotypes used. Results are discussed in terms of the effect of mood on the accessibility of relevant information and of the interpretive categories applied to information. Implications for the literature on mood effects and on intergroup perceptions are discussed.

Mood and the expression of ethnic stereotypes.

Mood and the expression of ethnic stereotypes.

Unilateral Facial Contractions Produce Mood Effects on Social Cognitive Judgements.

This study demonstrates that left and right unilateral facial contractions have similar effects on the expression of ethnic stereotypes as do negative and positive moods induced by more conventional means. Subjects who con tracted the left side of their face (negative mood inducer) were more likely to express negative stereotypes of ethnic groups than were subjects who contracted the right side of their face (positive mood inducer). This parallels previous findings obtained using two standard mood inductions: the Veltens mood induction procedure; and a musical mood induction procedure. Given that unilateral facial contractions manipulate mood without cognitive involvement, this mood induction may have advantages over previously used procedures, the effects of which are subject to cognitive mediation explanations. In addition, these results suggest that, at least for the expression of ethnic stereotypes, mood's influence on cognition does not depend on a cognitive component of mood induction.

The Royal Dockyards 1690–1850 by Jonathan G. Coad

156 Book Reviews TECHNOLOGY AND CULTURE United States. However, increasing competition from Soviet space exploration and the Japanese electronics industry soon paved the way for worldwide cooperation. At the same time, new options for describing and shaping complex technical systems grew up against the background of expanding automation coupled with more intense interdisciplinary research. This first synopsis of the development of engineering sciences con­ centrates on the cognitive aspect, linked to the interactions with ma­ terial production. Unfortunately the concept of linear progress dom­ inates, as reflected in the stereotypical expressions “not yet” and “already.” Incidentally, that applies equally to the authors’ more de­ tailed work (much ofit postdoctoral dissertations that are sadly missing from the bibliography). The reproduction aspect of engineering sci­ ences is only occasionally mentioned, yet it represents an important component of methodological approach, as can be seen in Buchheim’s other writings. It remains to be seen whether this research topic, well represented in the past at the Dresden University of Technology, will be maintained under the new political conditions. If so, this book could help to fertilize the historical discourse in North America and Western Europe on the relationship between science and technology and also to stimulate international discourse, specifically on the genesis of the engineering sciences, thus closing the remaining gaps. Oskar Blumtritt Dr. Blumtritt is curator of telecommunications at the Deutsches Museum. The Royal Dockyards 1690-1850. By Jonathan G. Coad. Brookfield, Vt.: Gower Publishing Company, 1989. Pp. xxvi + 399; illustrations, maps. $89.95. Jonathan Coad has tackled an immense subject and wins wide stripes for writing this book. (In the United States the subject will probably be claimed by industrial archaeologists; it will keep them busy for years!) The men who sail and fight on the deep blue leave the shore establishment in the hands of others. But valor afloat depends ultimately on the skills of those who design, build, and maintain naval bases—landlubbers, if you please. Coad states at the outset that “the Royal Navy was probably the greatest industrial organization in the world.” Is it possible to refute that? In 1711 there were 6,488 employees, in 1730 over 10,000, and by 1814 over 17,000. Finding that no British dockyard buildings older than the year 1690 still exist, he starts the narrative at that time and runs on to about 1850, when steam power and iron warships heralded a new technological age. The original British concern was defense against the French and Dutch. But as offensives moved into the Mediterranean and across TECHNOLOGY AND CULTURE Book Reviews 157 the Atlantic, bases at Portsmouth and Plymouth in the west soon rivaled the earlier yards with their shallow waters and frustrating winds. By 1814 the navy had over 900 ships to be serviced by bases as far away as Antigua, Bermuda, Gibraltar, and Bombay. Facing an immensely large and complicated subject, Coad carved it up to allow for several approaches. He devotes part one to the home bases, mainly the big ones at Chatham, Portsmouth, and Plymouth. He covers planning and organization under the Navy Board, with a picture of rival bureaucrats muscling each other along a way marked by poor bookkeeping. The need for reform was slowly acknowledged: by 1806, “a regular Surveyor of Civil Architecture is absolutely necessary, and ... he ought to have a salary of £300 a year.” The Royal Engineers enter the picture by the 1850s. There is a chapter on office buildings and houses, including Somerset House and capital structures in Whitehall. Another chapter examines the technical problems presented in building the drydocks—huge and expensive structures. The first crude one at Plymouth was lined with timber and closed by a crosswall of wood filled in with clay and stones. By 1700 all the yards had better ones. In the 19th century the slips in building yards were sometimes covered to protect wooden ships and increase the productivity of workers. Whether built of timber or of iron, they were quite remarkable and their structural design is of interest beyond dockyards. The wooden navy required much space for the storage and seasoning of timber, and a certain amount of attention was paid to fireproof floors...

Effects of Personal versus Impersonal Rater Instructions on Relative Favorability of Thirteen Ethnic Group Stereotypes

Abstract When attitudes toward Blacks are measured with reactive instruments, social desirability biases may be observed: Subjects avoid expressing negative attitudes when they believe that these attitudes will be evident to other individuals. To study whether these sanctions apply to other ethnic stereotypes, subjects were asked to assign checklist traits to 13 ethnic groups. Reactivity was manipulated by asking subjects to indicate either their personal beliefs or beliefs of the “typical American.” Subjects indicating personal beliefs were expected to be more susceptible to social desirability bias than those indicating beliefs of an anonymous typical American, but the strength and direction of this effect was predicted to vary by ethnic group. The interaction was significant, F(12, 840) = 6.048, p < .001. Although the data are consistent with earlier findings of social desirability biases in stereotypes of Blacks, the interaction effect suggests that norms about expression of unflattering stereotypes a...

Accius traducteur des Grecs: notion d’interpretatio et lecture colométrique (Fragment 581-584, Ribb.3)

The deficient handling over of Accius’s texts makes the study of the methods of translation of his texts difficult. Actually, these methods can only emerge conspicuously insofar as at least one pattern and one copy of a few coherent lines exist, which make possible the use of the discrepancy method. The 581-584 Ribb.3 extract from Accius’s Phoenissae fulfils these requirements, giving us four contiguous lines which can be compared to the first five lines of Euripid’s prologue, related to the same subject. Lexical, syntactic and linguistic analyses lead us to evoke well-known Latin facts such as amplificatio and copia dicendi, but also contaminatio and interpretatio. But more precisely, both a syntactical and metrical reading of these verse, which we call colometric lecture, shows how highly dependent on its own specific metrical habits Latin translation is. These habits are based on a particular attention focussed on verbal metrics and on the search for concomittance between the caesuras and the syntactical articulations of the sentence. Consequently, these considerations result in two methods of translation, the one following the succession of côla, a number of which are only eliminated, the other leading to the setting-up of an index of stereotyped expressions, so that Accius, absolute poeta fabricator, produces creative imitation.

A New Reading of an Ancient Poem

HABIT ibn Jabir, better known as Ta'abbata Sharran, was a 1poet from the pre-Islamic Saald1fk. In his poetry, we find a short passage that consists of nine lines, in which he described a unique experience that he underwent when a group of Banui Lihyan chased him, pushing him into a narrow pass, out of which he managed to emerge safely thanks to his wit and daring. This poem celebrates the poet's escape, which he consideres as a great victory over his pursuers. In the present study I wish to analyze this poem in full, in terms of both content and form, and to correct some common mistakes concerning certain points in it. I would also like to include a discussion of a number of current opinions concerning interconnectedness of the verses in ancient Arabic poetry, as well as the relationship between metre and content. I also wish to point out the reciprocal relationship between the opening words and stereotyped expressions of the poem and its metre. The following is the text of the poem is cited in Abui-Tammam's Hama-sa 1, in English transliteration, each verse followed by an English translation2.

Effects of Social Conditions on the Expression of Sex-role Stereotypes

In this study, 129 female and 83 male undergraduates were asked to make judgments about identical male and female law school applicants. Evaluations of the candidate employed two types of measures: (a) direct measures set up to assess judgments based upon objective criteria such as GPA and aptitude test scores, and (b) indirect measures designed to provide more opportunity for subjective factors and subtle ways for stereotyping to operate. It was hypothesized that increased social awareness of sex discrimination would reduce more blatant types of stereotyping expressed in the direct measures and force stereotyping into more subtle forms, measurable through the construction of the indirect indices. The results revealed no differences between male and female candidates on the direct measures. However, stereotyping appeared on indirect measures associated with personality characteristics and employment alternatives. The investigators concluded that prejudicial attitudes toward women continue to exist and are expressed in more subtle or “hidden” forms. Suggestions for developing means for measuring these attitudes as well as practical considerations for reducing discrimination in employment settings were presented.

Awareness and expression of sex stereotypes in young children.

Awareness and expression of sex stereotypes in young children.

Awareness and expression of sex stereotypes in young children.

Awareness and expression of sex stereotypes in young children.

Stereotyped Expressions in the Rāmāyaṇa

Stereotyped Expressions in the Rāmāyaṇa