Stereotype Strength Research Articles

The correction of the pathological posture and gait in patients with infantile cerebral palsy using a functional cycle device

The purpose of the present research was to study the effect of special exercises on the state of tonus, endurance, muscular strength and correction of a pathological motor stereotype with help of a functional cycle device. The analysis of the study results confirmed that a combination of balneophysiotherapeutic, mud factors with exercises on a special device prevented the development of pain reflex syndromes and painful spasms of muscles, contributed to a better efficacy and quality of the therapy, given to children with infantile cerebral palsy, on the whole.

Exploring the Neural Correlates of Social Stereotyping

Judging people on the basis of cultural stereotypes is a ubiquitous facet of daily life, yet little is known about how this fundamental inferential strategy is implemented in the brain. Using fMRI, we measured neural activity while participants made judgments about the likely actor (i.e., person-focus) and location (i.e., place-focus) of a series of activities, some of which were associated with prevailing gender stereotypes. Results revealed that stereotyping was underpinned by activity in areas associated with evaluative processing (e.g., ventral medial prefrontal cortex, amygdala) and the representation of action knowledge (e.g., supramarginal gyrus, middle temporal gyrus). In addition, activity accompanying stereotypic judgments was correlated with the strength of participants' explicit and implicit gender stereotypes. These findings elucidate how stereotyping fits within the neuroscience of person understanding.

Do paper-and-pencil tests give an accurate measure of stereotype strength? A review of available data

A review of available data demonstrates that the commonly-used pencil-and-paper tests for determining stereotype strengths are inadequate under most circumstances and usually do not give the true measure of stereotype strength that would be obtained with tests of real hardware. In order to obtain a correct measure of stereotype strength, it appears necessary to use simulations very close to the real hardware. Relevance to Industry Controls and related displays are part of many machines. By proper design, in which population stereotypes are used for the relationship between controls and displays, it can be expected that control errors and reaction times will be decreased. In order to achieve this, it is necessary to know these stereotypes. Many of these stereotypes have been established with paper-and-pencil tests, but little has been written on their validity.

Stereotype strength and attentional bias: Preference for confirming versus disconfirming information depends on processing capacity

In two experiments, we investigated the relationships among stereotype strength, processing capacity, and the allocation of attention to stereotype-consistent versus stereotype-inconsistent information describing a target person. The results of both experiments showed that, with full capacity, greater stereotype strength was associated with increased attention toward stereotype-consistent versus stereotype-inconsistent information. However, when capacity was diminished, greater stereotype strength was associated with increased attention toward inconsistent versus consistent information. Thus, strong stereotypes may act as self-confirming filters when processing capacity is plentiful, but as efficient information gathering devices that maximize the acquisition of novel (disconfirming) information when capacity is depleted. Implications for models of stereotyping and stereotype change are discussed.

Warrick’s Principle, Implied Linkages and the Effect of Hand/Control Location

In two-dimensional display/control relationships, Warrick's principle has been found to be an important factor in determining stereotype strengths. This principle has an 'implied linkage' that may bias the responses of persons such as engineers who have knowledge of mechanisms and hence produce stereotypes that are not representative of the general population. It is shown that such 'implied linkages' may also exist for three-dimensional display/control relationships, where the control is not in the same plane as the display. A further factor in such cases may be a 'hand/control location' (HCL) effect that is a physically-based factor related to the location of the control relative to the body, and hence to handedness, hand used and hand posture used in controlling. Several examples show the validity of this concept for both two- and three-dimensional display-control relationships.

Movement Compatibility for Two-Dimensional Lever Control and Digital Counter

This paper studies the strength and reversibility of direction-of-motion stereotypes and response times for a digital counter with 2-D (four-way) lever controls. The results showed that the forward-for-increase (FI), backward-for-decrease (BD), up-for-increase (UI), and down-for-decrease (DD) stereotypes were generally weak in the four-way lever-digital counter configuration, with the FI-BD and UI-DD stereotypes being dominant at the horizontal and vertical planes, respectively. The FI-BD stereotypes at the horizontal planes were generally stronger than the UI-DD stereotypes at the vertical planes, indicating that the horizontal planes are the desirable planes for positioning a four-way lever in working with the digital counter. In consideration of the mean stereotype strengths and indexes of reversibility, the compatibility of the lever control-digital counter was much lower than that of the four-way lever-circular display configuration found in a previous study. The analysis of the contribution of component principles also confirmed that the UI, DD, FI, and BD stereotypes were much weaker than the stereotypes found in the four-way lever-circular display combination. The findings suggested that a circular display is a better partner than a digital counter with a four-way lever.

Strength and Reversibility of Stereotypes for a Rotary Control with Linear Scales

Using real mechanical controls, this experiment studied strength and reversibility of direction-of-motion stereotypes and response times for a rotary control with horizontal and vertical scales. Thirty-eight engineering undergraduates (34 men and 4 women) ages 23 to 47 years (M=29.8, SD=7.7) took part in the experiment voluntarily. The effects of instruction of change of pointer position and control plane on movement compatibility were analyzed with precise quantitative measures of strength and a reversibility index of stereotype. Comparisons of the strength and reversibility values of these two configurations with those of rotary control-circular display, rotary control-digital counter, four-way lever-circular display, and four-way lever-digital counter were made. The results of this study provided significant implications for the industrial design of control panels for improved human performance.

Strength and reversibility of movement stereotypes for lever control and circular display

This experiment studied strength and reversibility of direction-of-motion stereotypes, and response times for different configurations of lever controls with circular displays. Quantitative measures of the strength and reversibility of stereotypes were used to analyze the effects of pointer position, direction of turn instruction, and control plane on movement compatibility. Strong and significantly reversible stereotypes were obtained for horizontal and vertical levers, at the 12 and 9 o’clock pointer positions, respectively. Response times were generally longer when there were no clear movement stereotypes. In the analysis of the contributions of component principles to the overall stereotypes, the results here were explained in terms of the operating principles of right-clockwise (RC), clockwise-right (CR), left-anticlockwise (LA), anticlockwise-left (AL), down-clockwise (DC), clockwise-down (CD), up-anticlockwise (UA), and anticlockwise-up (AU). Recommendations for check reading or resetting purposes arising out of this study are that for a horizontal lever the display pointer should be at 12 o’clock, and for a vertical lever the pointer should be at 9 o’clock. For horizontal and vertical levers, the lever and the display should be in the frontal plane. Due to weak response preferences and low reversibility, vertical and horizontal levers were found to be not suited for use with any of the other control/display configurations used here. This study provided useful information for improving the design of control panels used in person–machine interfaces. Relevance to industry The interaction of people with equipment and machinery is mainly achieved through a two-way exchange of information via displays and controls, demanding information processing and decision-making skills. Results from the various configurations of lever control and circular display studied in detail here led to recommendations about design features that are important for control panel interface design, and for prediction of the effects of design on user behavior. The recommendations on compatible interface designs should result in more rapid response times and fewer errors.

Attitudes and beliefs in a marching band: stereotyping and accentuation in a favorable intergroup context

AbstractInter‐group perception was examined in a context characterized by positive interdependence and extensive contact across group boundaries. The attitudes and beliefs of the woodwind, brass, and percussion sections of a university marching band were examined using measures of ingroup favoritism, outgroup homogeneity, and 12 scales assessing adult temperament. Although there was no evidence of ingroup favoritism or outgroup homogeneity, and few actual temperament differences across groups, stereotypic expectations based on temperament characteristics were strong. For each target group, strength of stereotype was accentuated by ingroup judges and, most strongly, by outgroup judges. Accentuation of differences between groups occurred when the expectation, and not the reality, of group differences were present. Correlations between contact measures and individual measures of perceived ingroup–outgroup differences were generally low, but suggested that degree of contact correlated positively, rather than negatively, with the magnitude of perceived differences between groups. Copyright © 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Movement compatibility for circular display and rotary controls positioned at peculiar positions

This experiment studied strength and reversibility of direction-of-motion stereotypes and response times for a circular display with rotary controls located at peculiar positions. The effects of pointer position, instruction of turn direction, and control plane on movement compatibility were analyzed using the quantitative measures of “strength” and “reversibility index” for stereotypes. Comparisons were made between the results obtained for peculiar control positions in this experiment with those in which controls were positioned in commonly used planes. Very strong and significantly reversible clockwise-for-clockwise (CC) and anticlockwise-for-anticlockwise (AA) stereotypes were obtained at the 12 o’clock pointer position when the control was positioned in the normal (conventional) and receded frontal planes. Response times were found to be generally longer when there were no clear movement stereotypes. While the CC and AA preferences were dominant and reversible at all planes and pointer positions for normal control positions, there were great variations in strength, reversibility, and type of stereotype found for the different test configurations of the peculiar control positions used in this experiment. Reversed stereotypes of lower strength and weaker reversibility were found for the controls on the bottom and left saggital planes. The results were explained by the fact that a combination of different principles, viz. CC, AA, clockwise-for-right (CR), anticlockwise-for-left (AL), clockwise-for-anticlockwise (CA), and anticlockwise-for-clockwise (AC), were operating at different pointer and control positions. The findings suggested that for improved performance, industrial designers should avoid placing rotary controls at peculiar positions, the normal frontal plane is the best plane for positioning rotary control with circular display, and it is recommended that the pointer is always positioned at 12 o’clock for check reading or resetting purposes. Relevance to industry This study examined population stereotypes and response times of subjects in manipulating rotary controls positioned at peculiar positions with circular displays. The results help to establish guidelines for the industrial design of control panels used in person–machine interfaces to improve human performance.

Compensation for Inconsistencies: The Effects of Stereotype Strength on Expectations of Applicants’ Job Success and Satisfaction

This research was designed to examine how exposure to information about a man described in terms of gender-typed, cross gender-typed, or androgynous characteristics affected judgments about his potential satisfaction and suitability for male- and female-dominated occupations. In addition, we examined how this exposure affected judgments about another man who was applying for the same job. Drawing from prior theory and research on the schema maintenance through compensation model (e.g., Seta & Seta, 1993; Seta, Seta, & McElroy, 2003), it was predicted and found that participants with strong gender stereotypes develop compensatory expectancies. Specifically, in comparison to control conditions, participants exposed to information about the first applicant that was inconsistent with a typical man’s behavior expected the second applicant to be especially “macho” and to be unsuitable in and dissatisfied with traditionally, female-dominant occupations. Implications for employment interviews were discussed.

Cognitive Processes in Stereotype Formation: The Role of Correct Contingency Learning for Biased Group Judgments.

Three studies investigated contingency learning and stereotype formation in a scenario about group membership and behavior with a confounding context factor. The studies tested predictions from theoretical accounts of biased group judgments in terms of simplistic reasoning, parallel distributed memory, and pseudocontingencies. Study 1 revealed a positive correlation between erroneous stereotype formation and learning of the true contingencies with the confounding factor. Study 2 showed that a focus manipulation during encoding moderated the correlation between stereotype formation and contingency learning but not the strength of the erroneous stereotype. Study 3 used a quasiexperimental comparison between participants with biased versus unbiased group judgments and extended the findings of a positive relation between stereotype formation and contingency learning. The results support an explanation of biased group judgments by pseudocontingencies; that is, unwarranted inferences from accurately perceived bivariate correlations in complex environments.

Precise effects of control position, indicator type, and scale side on human performance

Using a real hardware setup, the precise effect of control knob position, indicator type and scale side on strength of stereotype, index of reversibility (IR) and response time for a horizontal display/rotary control arrangement was studied. The main effects of the three main factors and the control position×scale side interaction were found to be highly significant for human response time, while the direction of instruction influenced stereotype strength. With analysis performed separately for top and bottom controls, for which different conditions of compatibility between clockwise-for-right, counterclockwise-for-left and the Warrick's principle exist, two different relationships were established between response time and stereotype strength. A further precise analysis of counterclockwise-for-left and clockwise-for-right stereotype showed that response time decreases not only with the clockwise-for-right stereotype strength, but also with the counterclockwise-for-left stereotype strength at bottom positions on which the counterclockwise-for-left stereotype agrees with the Warrick's principle. Finally, based on a consideration of response time, stereotype strength and stereotype reversibility, some practical implications for the design of horizontal linear display and rotary control configurations were given. The results of this study provide recommendations for interface design for control consoles commonly used in many different manufacturing systems.

Movement compatibility for rotary control and circular display—Computer Simulated Test and real Hardware Test

This experiment studied strength and reversibility of direction-of-motion stereotypes and response times for different configurations of circular displays and rotary knobs. The effect of pointer position, instruction of turn direction, and control plane on movement compatibility was analyzed with precise quantitative measures of strength and reversibility index of stereotype. A comparison of results was made between a Computer Simulated Test and a Hardware Test with real rotary controls. There was consensus in the results of the two tests that strong and significantly reversible clockwise-for-clockwise (CC) and anticlockwise-for-anticlockwise (AA) stereotypes were obtained at the 12 o’clock position. Subjects’ response times were found to be generally longer when there were no clear movement stereotypes. Nevertheless, differences of results were observed that while the CC and AA preferences were found to be dominant and reversible at all the planes and pointer positions in the Hardware Test, there was variation in the strength and reversibility of the two stereotypes amongst different testing configurations in the Simulated Test. This phenomenon was explained by the operating of the clockwise-for-right and anticlockwise-for-left principles, as shown in the analysis of contributions of component principles to the overall stereotype. The differences of results from the two tests were discussed with regard to simulation fidelity and it was suggested that a real Hardware Test should be used whenever possible for determination of design parameters of control panels in consideration of movement compatibility. Based on the Hardware Test, a pointer is recommended to be positioned at 12 o’clock position for check reading or resetting purpose, and the frontal plane is the best plane for positioning a rotary control with circular display. The results of this study provided significant implications for the industrial design of control panels used in man–machine interfaces for improved human performance.

An empirical study of compatibility on rotary control and horizontal display

The precise effect of scale side, indicator type and control knob position on stereotype strength, index of reversibility and response time for a horizontal display/rotary control arrangement was studied with a factorial experiment. All the main effects and two-factor interactions were found to be highly significant on response time, while both control position and direction of instruction influenced the stereotype strength. Because of the decline in the counterclockwise-for-left stereotype found from the left- to the right-hand side of the display, the stereotype reversibility decreased across the control positions in the same direction. Other than the clockwise-for-right principle and Warrick's principle, the results were also explained with a clockwise-for-push principle, which gave a particularly good account of the extreme values of stereotype strength and reversibility for control positions located at the right- and left-hand ends of the display. With analysis performed separately for top and bottom controls, on which different conditions of compatibility between clockwise-for-right and Warrick's principle exist, two different significant relationships were established between response time and stereotype strength. A further precise analysis of counterclockwise-for-left and clockwise-for-right stereotypes on response time showed that response time decreases not only with clockwise-for-right stereotype strength but also with counterclockwise-for-left ( SCC-L) stereotype strength at bottom positions on which the SCC-L stereotype agrees with Warrick's principle. Finally, based on the consideration of response time, stereotype strength and stereotype reversibility, some practical implications for the design of horizontal linear display and rotary control configuration were established. The results of this study provide recommendations for interface design on control consoles used in a manufacturing environment.

On the Parameters of Associative Strength: Central Tendency and Variability as Determinants of Stereotype Accessibility

The authors studied the determinants of associative strength of stereotypes. Based on the literature on associative learning and on assumptions derived from a functional view of stereotyping, the authors hypothesized that the strength of stereotypical associations was determined by two parameters: If (a) central tendency of a trait is high and (b) variability of a trait is low, associations are formed, and activating a social category leads to heightened accessibility of this trait. The authors tested their predictions in two experiments in which stereotype accessibility was measured. In Experiment 1, they investigated stereotype development. It was shown that associations between a social category and a trait attribute develop when central tendency is high and when variability is low. In Experiment 2, it was shown that existing stereotypes are also characterized by high central tendency and low variability. The implications of these results are discussed.

Effects of Stereotypes and Outcome Dependency on the Processing of Information about Group Members

The present study investigated the effects of stereotype strength and outcome dependency on information processing. Participants' outcomes were either symmetrically independent, symmetrically interdependent, asymmetrically independent, or asymmetrically dependent with respect to a target (a sorority member). Participants whose outcomes depended on the target recalled more stereotype-inconsistent information about her, whereas participants whose outcomes were independent of the target attended to and recalled more stereotype-consistent information. Participants exhibited the least stereotype use when the target was dependent on them. Effects for recall were moderated by stereotype strength. Stronger stereotypes were also associated with more stereotypic target judgments and greater confidence in those judgments, regardless of the dependency relationship. Results are consistent with and extend previous research on outcome dependency and stereotypes.

Stereotype efficiency reconsidered: encoding flexibility under cognitive load?

According to the encoding flexibility model, stereotypes are efficient because they facilitate, in different ways, the encoding of both stereotype-consistent and stereotype-inconsistent information when capacity is low. Because stereotypical information is conceptually fluent, it may be easily understood, even when resources are scant. As a result, processing resources may shift from stereotypical toward counterstereotypical information, which is difficult to comprehend under such conditions. Thus, whereas inconsistent information receives greater attention (Experiments 1-3) and perceptual encoding (Experiment 4) when resources are depleted, the conceptual meaning of consistent information is extracted to a greater degree under such conditions (Experiment 5). Potential moderating roles of stereotype strength and perceiver motivations are discussed, as are the implications of these results for dual process models of stereotyping.

What do people believe about gay males? A study of stereotype content and strength

The current research examined the content and strength of the gay male stereotype. This focus represents a return to the earliest issues addressed by social psychologists. Although once a major substantive area in social psychology, issues of content gradually gave way to issues of process. However, issues of content and process are inextricably tied to one another. Content studies detail the specific attributes in stereotypes, their strength, valence, and inaccuracy. Process studies use this information to examine when stereotypes will influence social reality and social perception. The current research showed that beliefs about gay males included attributes from multiple stereotype components, formed two subtypes, and varied in strength. These findings have implications for research on issues of process because knowing what people believe about gay males and how strongly they hold those beliefs provides insight into when stereotypes may be most likely to create biases.

Strength of component principles determining direction of turn stereotypes-linear displays with rotary controls

Three experiments on direction of turn stereotypes are reported for (i) twodimensional horizontally moving displays (ii) three-dimensional display/control arrangements and (iii) the relationship between response times and the strength of stereotypes. In each case, equations were written for the strength of the stereotype (proportion of clockwise movements) in terms of the direction predicted by various principles; clockwise to increase, clockwise to the right, clockwise away, scale-side and Warrick's for two-dimensional arrangements and modifications of these for three-dimensional arrangements. Solution of these equations gave the contribution of each principle to the strength of the overall stereotype. There were found to be strong effects of subject groups (engineers and psychologists) in the strength of component principles. The important result was that the strength of the stereotype was a linear sum of the strength of each contributing principle. The work was extended to the case of three-dimensional display/control relationships, where the rotary control was not in the same plane as the display. One experiment used paper and pencil tests and the other simulated displays and controls. It was found that (i) the paper and pencil tests gave a good prediction of data obtained with the simulated displays in cases where Warrick's principle was applicable; (ii) strong stereotypes were found for cases in which Warrick's principle was applicable, but not in cases where the axis of the control was parallel to the direction of motion of the display; (iii) in allcases where Warrick's principlewas applicable, the stereotypes were reversible, whereas in a number of the tests where Warrick's principle could not be applied this was not the case. In a further experiment, subject's reaction time to move a control was measured for a set of 64 different combinations of linear displays and rotary controls. It was found that, for horizontally moving displays, the response time for an arrangement having a strong stereotype was faster than one with a weaker stereotype, however there was no significant relationship for any of the vertical layouts. Response time was found to be dependent on the magnitude of the component principle making the greatest contribution to the strength of the overall stereotype.