Steep Mountain Rivers Research Articles

Flow Resistance in Very Rough Channels

AbstractFlow resistance in open channels determines the average flow velocity in a river, with important implications for downstream and at‐a‐station hydraulic geometry and sediment transport in natural channels. However, flow resistance in steep mountain channels is challenging to understand and predict due to heterogeneous channel morphology and spatially variable flow. Using a double‐averaging approach appropriate for very rough channels, the width, reach, and double‐averaged variables for steady, uniform flow in an open channel are derived. Using an empirical model for the coefficient of form drag, a flow resistance model is derived that compares well to a large data set of flow velocity in natural channels. Several parameters that together describe bed morphology are observed to be relatively consistent in the data set used and compare well to previous estimates of their values. This implies a degree of self‐organization in bed morphology that may simplify the challenging problem of predicting flow resistance in steep mountain rivers.

Laboratory based continuous bedload monitoring in a model retention basin: Application of time domain reflectometry

AbstractIn this study, we applied time domain reflectometry (TDR) to determine the deposition height and porosity of sediment at a fine spatiotemporal resolution, and developed a continuous bedload monitoring method that can be applied to pools in steep mountain rivers. The TDR monitoring system consisted of sensor probes, a cable tester, multiplexers and coaxial cables. When the embedded probes penetrated both water and sediment, the boundaries of the sediment and water were consistent with the transition points in the observed waveforms of each TDR measurement. A semi‐automatic analysis of the recorded TDR waveforms, which did not require calibration or parameter fitting, was conducted to establish continuous monitoring. In addition, a flume experiment was performed to test the monitoring system in a model retention basin connected to a flume, with sand of uniform grain size (1.4 mm diameter) supplied for 30 min. The sediment volume in the container representing the model basin was monitored using a load cell underlying the container and eight sensor probes, with a length of almost 0.27 m. The sediment thickness determined by the TDR indicated a gradual deposition, and was consistent with manual measurements. Despite a marginal overestimation of 13% for a sand feed of 30 kg, the sediment volume in the model retention basin and the bedload transport rate were successfully estimated. A combination of our monitoring system and other indirect methods, such as geophones, can potentially serve as useful tools for better understanding bedload transport processes in steep mountain streams. Copyright © 2018 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Bed load transport and boundary roughness changes as competing causes of hysteresis in the relationship between river discharge and seismic amplitude recorded near a steep mountain stream

AbstractHysteresis in the relationship between bed load transport and river stage is a well‐documented phenomenon with multiple known causes. Consequently, numerous studies have interpreted hysteresis in the relationship between seismic ground motion near rivers and some measure of flow strength (i.e., discharge or stage) as the signature of bed load transport. Here we test this hypothesis in the Erlenbach stream (Swiss Prealps) using a metric to quantitatively compare hysteresis in seismic data with hysteresis recorded by geophones attached beneath steel plates within the streambed, a well‐calibrated proxy for direct sediment transport measurements. We find that while both the geophones and seismometers demonstrate hysteresis, the magnitude and direction of hysteresis are not significantly correlated between these data, indicating that the seismic signal at this site is primarily reflecting hysteresis in processes other than sediment transport. Seismic hysteresis also does not correlate significantly with the magnitude of sediment transport recorded by the geophones, contrary to previous studies' assumptions. We suggest that hydrologic sources and changes in water turbulence, for instance due to evolving boundary conditions at the bed, rather than changes in sediment transport rates, may sometimes contribute to or even dominate the hysteresis observed in seismic amplitudes near steep mountain rivers.

Coarser and rougher: Effects of fine gravel pulses on experimental step-pool channel morphodynamics

Understanding how steep mountain rivers respond to natural and anthropogenic sediment supply perturbations is important for predicting effects of extreme events (e.g., floods and landslides) and for restoring rivers to more natural conditions. Using flume experiments, we show that stabilized step-pool-like channel beds can respond to pulses of finer gravel by becoming even coarser and rougher than before. Adding finer gravel initially reduces bed roughness and also increases the mobility of previously stable bed grains. Small- and intermediate-diameter clasts are then preferentially winnowed from the bed surface, leaving behind higher concentrations of even larger clasts. Ultimately, this results in both a coarser and rougher bed. Our experiments demonstrate that steep river beds become stable through the coevolution of bed roughness and surface grain size distribution and that these morphological variables can be sensitive to the history of upstream sediment supply.

Bed load transport monitoring using seismic observations in a low‐gradient rural gravel bed stream

AbstractThe characterization of bed load transport in rivers is critical for the fundamental understanding and management of fluvial systems. Bed load monitoring based on seismological observations has recently emerged as a viable noninvasive measurement technique. However, applications of this new approach have been hitherto restricted to the case of sediment transport in steep mountain rivers. Here we further develop and evaluate the approach for a lower gradient gravel bed stream in a rural catchment using seismic observations, in situ hydroacoustic measurements of bed load motion (impact‐plate‐type device), and 3‐D hydromorphodynamic modeling. The results of this joint analysis of seismic measurements, hydroacoustic records, and sediment transport simulations show that the seismic monitoring technique for bed load transport characterization is applicable for a broader range of river systems than previously investigated.

Bulk velocity measurements by video analysis of dye tracer in a macro-rough channel

Steep mountain rivers have hydraulic and morphodynamic characteristics that hinder velocity measurements. The high spatial variability of hydraulic parameters, such as water depth (WD), river width and flow velocity, makes the choice of a representative cross-section to measure the velocity in detail challenging. Additionally, sediment transport and rapidly changing bed morphology exclude the utilization of standard and often intrusive velocity measurement techniques. The limited technical choices are further reduced in the presence of macro-roughness elements, such as large, relatively immobile boulders. Tracer tracking techniques are among the few reliable methods that can be used under these conditions to evaluate the mean flow velocity. However, most tracer tracking techniques calculate bulk flow velocities between two or more fixed cross-sections. In the presence of intense sediment transport resulting in an important temporal variability of the bed morphology, dead water zones may appear in the few selected measurement sections. Thus a technique based on the analysis of an entire channel reach is needed in this study. A dye tracer measurement technique in which a single camcorder visualizes a long flume reach is described and developed. This allows us to overcome the problem of the presence of dead water zones. To validate this video analysis technique, velocity measurements were carried out on a laboratory flume simulating a torrent, with a relatively gentle slope of 1.97% and without sediment transport, using several commonly used velocity measurement instruments. In the absence of boulders, salt injections, WD and ultrasonic velocity profiler measurements were carried out, along with dye injection technique. When boulders were present, dye tracer technique was validated only by comparison with salt tracer. Several video analysis techniques used to infer velocities were developed and compared, showing that dye tracking is a valid technique for bulk velocity measurements. RGB Euclidean distance was identified as being the best measure of the average flow velocity.

Flood wave propagation in steep mountain rivers

Most of the recent developments concerning efficient numerical schemes to solve the shallow-water equations in view of real world flood modelling purposes concern the two-dimensional form of the equations or the one-dimensional form written for rectangular, unit-width channels. Extension of these efficient schemes to the one-dimensional cross-sectional averaged shallow-water equations is not straightforward, especially when complex natural topographies are considered. This paper presents different formulations of numerical schemes based on the HLL (Harten–Lax–van Leer) solver, and the adaptation of the topographical source term treatment when cross-sections of arbitrary shape are considered. Coupled and uncoupled formulations of the equations are considered, in combination with centred and lateralised source term treatment. These schemes are compared to a numerical solver of Lax Friedrichs type based on a staggered grid. The proposed schemes are first tested against two theoretical benchmark tests and then applied to the Brembo River, an Italian alpine river, firstly simulating a steady-state condition and secondly reproducing the 2002 flood wave propagation.

Efficient transport of fossil organic carbon to the ocean by steep mountain rivers: An orogenic carbon sequestration mechanism

Mountain building exposes fossil organic carbon (OC fossil ) in exhumed sedimentary rocks. Oxidation of this material releases carbon dioxide from long-term geological storage to the atmosphere. OC fossil is mobilized on hillslopes by mass wasting and transferred to the particu- late load of rivers. In large fl uvial systems, it is thought to be oxidised in transit, but in short, steep rivers that drain mountain islands, OC fossil may escape oxidation and re-enter geological storage due to rapid fl uvial transfer to the ocean. In these settings, the rates of OC fossil transfer and their controls remain poorly constrained. Here we quantify the erosion of OC fossil from the Taiwan mountain belt, combining discharge statistics with measurements of particulate organic carbon load and source in 11 rivers. Annual OC fossil yields in Taiwan vary from 12 ± 1 to 246 ± 22 tC km −2 yr −1 , controlled by the high physical erosion rates that accompany rapid crustal shortening and frequent typhoon impacts. Effi cient transfer of this material ensures that 1.3 ± 0.1 ◊ 10 6 tC yr −1 of OC fossil exhumed in Taiwan is delivered to the ocean, with <15% loss due to weathering in transit. Our fi ndings suggest that erosion of coastal mountain ranges can force effi cient transfer and long-term re-accumulation of OC fossil in marine sediments, further enhancing the role of mountain building in the long-term storage of carbon in the lithosphere.

Flow resistance in steep mountain rivers in Bolivia

The present paper illustrates the assessment of the Darcy-Weisbach flow resistance coefficients f at five steep mountain rivers located in the northern mountain range surrounding the city of Cochabamba in Bolivia. Extensive field works were carried out. Several empirical formulas were tested. Results show that some of the aforementioned formulas provide good results in the assessment of f, being the model of Ugarte & Madrid-Aris (1994) the most accurate one. Plots showing direct logarithmic relationships between f and the riverbed slope So were obtained for each studied river, as well as an overall relationship of f vs. So.

Effective discharge for sediment transport in a mountain river: Computational approaches and geomorphic effectiveness

Dominant, effective, bankfull and channel-forming discharges are different concept-based flows, often applied as design parameters in river management and restoration. In order to achieve a better understanding of channel-forming conditions in high-gradient, boulder-bed streams, the long-term sediment loads data obtained from the Rio Cordon (Italian Alps) measuring station have been analysed. The effective discharge ( Q e, calculated using both Wolman and Miller's method and the so-called ‘mean’ approach) for bedload transport proves to be more appropriate than that determined for the suspended sediment load in describing the channel formation and maintenance for this type of channels. The analysis demonstrates that Q e is strongly influenced by the number of flow classes, the fraction of transported sediments and the methodology used in its computation. The result questions the appropriateness in considering Q e as an unique value, and also suggests the possible definition of two dominant discharge ranges for steep mountain rivers: (a) a relatively frequent flow range responsible for maintaining channel form; and (b) a more infrequent high flow range responsible for macro-scale channel shaping.