Steep Grades Research Articles

Production and Erection of Prestressed Concrete Poles for a Railroad Electrification Project

D the oil crisis of the 1970s the New Zealand Government committed itself to doing all it could to reduce the effect on the country of future rises in oil prices. One of the options at that time was to convert the most heavily trafficked section of the New Zealand Railways Corporation system from diesel powered to electric locomotives. In 1981 the decision was made to electrify a major part of the North Island main trunk line. While in this time of lowering world oil prices and rising electricity costs the initial economics may he hard to justify, the long term advantages of the scheme will benefit both the Railways Corporation and the country in the future. The section to be electrified, through the center of the North Island, contained many steep grades through difficult terrain. In addition to the savings in imported fuel, electric locomotives offered the additional advantages of better tractive power on the steep sections of track, resulting in longer trains hauling greater loads, increased reliability and improved operating efficiency. Electric locomotives also have the advantage that regenerative braking on the downhill runs can be used to power other Iocomotives on the system. In 1983 bids were called worldwide for the electrification of a 172 km (108 mile) section of track using a 25,000 volt alternating current system. This project was split into several contracts: Locomotives, Signals and Communications, and Traction Overhead (catenary cables and support structures). Local contracts

The Corn Belt Route: a History of the Chicago Great Western Railroad Company

Chicago Western Railroad was a spunky midwestern carrier that contributed mightily to the transportation industry. 1,500-mile CGW, built by the iconoclastic and ambitious A. B. Stickney, proved to be exceptionally innovative as it developed new ways to compete with larger railroads. Pitted against tough, determined competitors, the CGW during its eighty-five years made innovations that changed the history of American transportation. Among the pioneering activities for which the Western is remembered are the early use of internal combustion equipment, the hauling of truck trailers atop flatcars (piggy-backs), and the use of extremely long freight trains. Indeed, much of the railroad's past supports the notion that smaller, less-established carriers like the CGW frequently stimulated changes in industry thinking and practices. In spite of its innovations, the path of the Western, sometimes called the Great Weedy, did not always run smoothly. In the 1930s, John W. Barriger III quipped, The Chicago Western is a mountain railroad in a prairie country serving a vacuum. Such a negative assessment was not uncommon for this Granger pike, which in fact climbed some steep grades and owned a long tunnel. And while the road did not operate in a traffic vacuum, its competitors were well entrenched and robust. By 1903, the CGW served the strategic gateways of Chicago, Kansas City, Minneapolis-St. Paul, St. Joseph, and Omaha. Between Chicago and the Twin Cities alone, the company competed with six other roads. When the Chicago & North Western acquired the Western in 1968, one of America's most imaginative railroads disappeared. The Corn Belt Route is the first scholarly treatment of the Chicago Western Railroad, a company that has long intrigued the railfan, whether collector, modeler, photographer, or historian. Richly illustrated, this book tells the lively story of one of the great small railroads that once served the Midwest.

Horses of Different Colors: The Plains Indians in Stories for Children

IN THE LITTLE RED CABOOSE, 1 probably the worst picture book I've ever read, there is an illustration which illustrates the negative aspects of the theme to be considered in this essay: the depiction of Plains Indians in children's books. As the Little Red Caboose moves through the mountains, travelling on an impossibly steep railroad grade en route to its moment of greatness, it passes through the middle of an Indian village. Tipis are pitched on both sides of the track; a chief in his flowing-feather bonnet watches the train, while children, some fully clothed, some only in breech-clouts, run forward. A pony rears excitedly, while in the distance, a group of adults, wrapped in blankets, sit in a circle, apparently oblivious to the passage of the train.

Night of the Singing Hounds

Jarvis lay on the stone overhang peering cautiously over into the blackness. Bertrand Foley sat motionless on a rock just barely within the dim ring of lantern light. "What's goin' on?" asked Tiffin, glancing at Foley, then looking intently around the pack of hounds for Little Kipper. "What'd the dogs corner?" Little Kipper was not in the pack. Jarvis rolled over and looked back at them. "They didn't corner nothin'. We found 'em up here on top the cliff hollerin ' down toward the bottom. Psimer went around the hill down there to have a look." They waited for a while as the lantern picked its way up the steep grading around toward them. Psimer came up breathing heavily, soaked from head to foot in the dew. "Well, what was it?" asked Jarvis impatiently. Bertrand Foley sat on the rock in silence and all four of the men stared at Psimer. "It was a fox. They chased it over the edge. And Tif. . ." he paused, "well, Little Kipper's down there too. He mustVe chased right over the ledge on that fox's tail. Sorry to see it, Tif, but it's a fine figure of a dog that'll chase a fox to his death." Tiffin smiled into the dark air beyond the ledge. "Yeah, Psimer, fine figure of a dog. A man would'a been plumb proud to own a dog like that." C NIGHT OF THE SINGING HOUNDS From high the ridge the hunters stop to play Cow-horn music to low-singing hounds, Foxfires ash-covered as the hound of day Slow-trails the rugged land mouthing no sound. The song of horn houndtalks an ended night, Ritual-song of fox, hound, horn, and men; Frost-spun, the scent of fox is cocoon-tight To frozen earth that hounds no longer wind. From high the ridge sore-footed walkers lag Their masters down a narrow cow-made trail, Mute to all boastful talk and hounddog brag Of bugled voices now on mountain stale. Night-singing hounds sight-trailing homeward men, Dreaming of cracklin-mash and burlap den. Billy C. Clark 25 ...

A Fire History of the High Chisos, Big Bend National Park, Texas

Fire history was studied in cypress forests and pinyon-juniper savannas. Fire dates were determined by tree ring counts from scars on Pinus cembroides. At least 10 fires occurred in the vicinity of Boot Canyon and at least eight on the Rim between 1770 and 1940. Episodic ground fires seem an important mortality factor of established pinyon and cypress saplings, but as trees grow to larger sizes, fire mortality is reduced. Longer fire intervals probably are filters that permit trees to survive into larger, fire-impervious sizes. Surface fires about every 50 years are one way to maintain the vegetation in some semblance of a natural, fire-regulated condition. The Chisos Mountains are of considerable biological interest because of their special plants, animals, and insular biogeography. Such high elevation species as Arizona cypress, Grave's oak, Chisos hornbeam, big-toothed maple, or Colima warbler present a peculiar blend of Rocky Mountain Cor- dilleran and Sierra Madrean Oriental flavors. Many visitors focus their activ- ities in these cool, forested canyons and on the high, scenic Rim. To help maintain these forest and woodland ecosystems in some kind of natural condition requires information on the role of fire, whose evidence is ubiqui- tous. One purpose of this study was to acquire field data on fire history and interpret the ecological role of fire in forest and woodland succession. Issues for the park staff were how any naturally occurring fire would behave and what changes would result under various fire management policies. This study describes dates, frequencies, intensities, and probable extent of fires in the high Chisos Mountains during the last two centuries. I will also inter- pret this fire history in terms of changing tree populations seen today (1978) at several locations. STUDY AREA.-Most of this study occurred in Boot Canyon and the scenic Rim portions of the Chisos Mountains at elevations above 1,950 m (6,400 ft). Boot Canyon is a northeasterly-trending, narrow drainage with intermittent streamflow and steep grades. Sideslopes generally are steep and marked by rhyolite outcrops and cliffs. The Rim is a plateau-like rhyolite summit whose eleva- tions exceed 2,200 m (7,200 ft). It is bounded for the most part by 60-m (200-ft) cliffs that doubtless present a fire barrier. Two structurally contrasting vegetations exist within the study area. Forests of canyon drainages feature an overstory of Arizona cypress (Cupressus arizonica) and Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga men- ziesii) whose crowns emerge above a lower stratum of oaks (Quercus gravesii, Q. grisea), madrone (Arbutus texana), junipers (Juniperus deppeana, J. flaccida, J. pinchotti), Mexican pinyon (Pinus cembroides), and big-toothed maple (Acer grandidentatum). These cypress forests include three habitat types (Table 1). The most extensive is the Arizona cypress/Chisos bluegrass habitat type (CUAR/POIN of Table 1) along steep, north-facing canyon slopes. A diagnostic feature is the herbaceous understory dominated by Chisos bluegrass (Poa involuta) and pinyon ricegrass (Pipto- chaetium fimbriatum). The Arizona cypress/big-toothed maple habitat type (CUAR/ACGR) is res- tricted to the streamside drainages. A grassy understory is absent, but the presence of big-toothed maple is diagnostic. The Arizona cypress/juniper/pinyon ricegrass habitat type is limited to lower, gentle slopes and deep soils in Boot Canyon, but not along streamsides. Cypress is less common than in the other types, and alligator-barked juniper (Juniperus deppeana) and Mexican

Some respiratory and metabolic effects of exercise in moderately obese men

The effects of varying levels of exercise on oxygen uptake, CO 2 production, blood pressure, arterial blood gasses, and arterial concentrations of glucose, insulin, and growth hormone were examined in ten normal weight and ten moderately overweight young men. At comparable external work loads with a bicycle ergometer, the lean men required less oxygen than the obese men. When oxygen uptakes were matched during exercise on a treadmill, the lean men were walking on a steeper grade or at a higher rate than the obese men. The efficiency of exercise as assessed by the relation between oxygen uptake and work did not differ between the two groups. Blood pressure rose more in the obese during exercise than in the lean. The fall in lactate and rise in bicarbonate was of greater magnitude during cycle ergometry than during treadmill exercise. Obese and lean men, however, showed similar changes. With each level of exercise, there was a fall in arterial insulin levels, but the concentrations in the blood of overweight men always remained significantly above that of the normal men. Growth hormone tended to be higher in the normal weight men, but the differences were usually not significant, and there was no significant rise with exercise in either group until the highest levels of work were achieved. Glucose concentrations tended to be higher in the obese men, but fell to constant levels in both groups during exercise. Blood pressure rose to a greater extent in the overweight men during exercise.

Determining the capacity of the Canadian trans-mountain highway system

Trans-mountain highway capacity is sensitive to the percentage of recreational vehicles in the traffic stream, the manner in which passenger car equivalents for recreational vehicles are used in capacity computations, terrain classification, and the choice of design hourly volume. The sensitivity of capacity to these factors is demonstrated for the trans-mountain portion of the Trans-Canada highway which is a two-lane highway, characterized in many locations by long steep grades. This particular highway has a high percentage of recreational vehicles during summer months. The Highway Capacity Manual does not make any provision for the effect of such vehicles and previous highway planning studies have used the adjustment factors for trucks and buses to estimate their effect. Neglecting the effect of recreational vehicles and/or improper use of their passenger car equivalents in capacity computations can result in serious errors in the determination of highway capacity especially in mountainous areas. Further research is required in the areas of terrain definition, selection of design hourly volume, and the present concept of level of service.

Clean air car race—The Worcester Gremlin KVA-SST

On August 24, 1970, 42 low-emission vehicles left M.I.T. on the first leg of the Clean Air Car Race. Seven days later, 35 of the cars had crossed the finish line at the California Institute of Technology, Pasadena. In the electric-hybrid category, two vehicles tied for first place--the University of Toronto and the Worcester Polytechnic Institute entries. The WPI car, which used an internal-combustion engine running on unleaded gas in combination with a battery-powered drive system, my have tied, but its success was in some ways a Pyrrhic victory: the solid-state controller burned out at least twice, a stepping resistor that was substituted for the controller caused a fire on the second day of the race, the heat sinks on the rectifiers overheated during the desert crossing, and the electric motor was not powerful enough to drive the car up steep grades. Nevertheless, the race proved that cleaner cars are feasible. The next step is up to government and industry. With luck, legislation now pending may curb most automotive pollutants by the mid-seventies.

Geographic Factors and Railroad Gauges

186ASSOCIATION OF PACIFIC COAST GEOGRAPHERS zone and a listing of photographs illustrative of the morphology of the entire zone.4 This list includes coverage of the zone from Point Arena to the Saltón Sea and serves a dual purpose. The photographs run the gamut from north to south and therefore present the complete range of physical environments along the zone. Secondly, each photograph attempts to portray those individual landforms characteristic of a particular segment of the zone. Obviously all features cannot be found in every section of the rift, and some photos show marked differences in fault trace manifestations. The selection should prove valuable to parties concerned with fault morphology. Additional information is available from the writer, and comments are welcomed. 4 These photographs are available from Western Aerial Photography Laboratory, ASCS-USDA, 2505 Parleys Way, Salt Lake City, Utah 84109. Cost of contact prints at nominal scale 1:20,000 is as follows: 1-5, $1.00; 6-100, $0.90; 100+, $0.70. Enlargements are available. Geographic Factors and Railroad Gauges* Thomas D. Best California State College at Los Angeles Throughout history, business decisions have been conditioned directly and indirectly by geographic factors. The roles of physical and cultural geographic elements are especially prominent in the process of railroad development and in general have been rather well analyzed by geographers. Examination of the role of geographic phenomena in decision making related to gauge, i.e., the spacing of the rails, was the purpose of research on which this paper was based. Introduction and evolution of the so-called "standard" gauge of 4' 8J2" appears, from today's perspective, both entirely accidental and somewhat unfortunate.1 No rationale other than traditional con- * Presented at the 1966 meeting of the Association to demonstrate the utility of the overhead projector in expository circumstances. 1 Charles E. Lee, The Evolution of Railways (2d. ed., London: The Railway Gazette , 1943), p. 2 and passim. VOLUME 28 / YEARBOOK / 1966187 venience can account for the fact that wheeled vehicles in the western world seem to have had their wheels at about the same spacing throughout their history.2 Even as motive power changed from animate to inanimate sources, and as rutways gave way to railways, only slight modifications of Greek and Roman wheel spacings appeared until the present odd-valued rail spacing emerged to ease the operation of Stephenson's equipment about 1830.3 If this gauge originally related to optimum fit to draft animals, there is no evidence to suggest that eventual introduction of broader and narrower gauges reflected the presence of larger or smaller beasts in regions where deviant gauges were innovated. In fact, the ideas of operation on either substantially wider or narrower track seem to have occurred in Britain . It is difficult to attach significance to any geographic factors insofar as the development of "standard" gauge is concerned, although recognition of the need for regional gauge uniformity certainly brought on the acceptance of the regionally dominant gauge, which often happened to be that used by pioneering Stephenson or his followers.4 About two-thirds of the world's railroad route mileage today is of "standard" gauge; it appears on every continent and in nations of highly diverse political and economic circumstances,5 yet no intrinsic advantage of the peculiar rail spacing can be cited. Broad gauges seem to have been introduced to gain increased power, capacity, and stability within rights-of-way only slightly larger than those of "standard" gauge. The broadest innovations, 7' in southwest Britain and 6' in northeastern United States, fell within decades under pressure for regional gauge unity, but about one-sixth of the present route mileage of the world is built to gauges of 5', 5' 6", and 5' 3", in order of mileage. Geographically based claims of ideal suitability to broad, open plains with room for uninhibited highspeed curves, space within the loading gauge for powerful engines to cope with steep grades, and improved stability in hurricanes 2 Robert R. Brown, "Gauges—Standard and Otherwise," Bulletin of the Railway and Locomotive Historical Society, No. 88 (May, 1953), pp. 78-81. Utterly undocumented , but the now "official" history of gauge evolution. 5 Ibid., p. 81...

138-Kv pipe cable construction

IN 1956, Public Service Electric & Gas Co. constructed a 13-mile, 138-kv pipe cable from West Orange (N.J.) Switching station to a proposed switching station in Cranford. Special construction was required to permit this cable to be rated up from its normal value of 190 mva to 225 mva, to meet high terminal pressures resulting from a static head of 515 feet, and to anchor the cable on a steep grade near one end of the line.

Seattle Plans for the Future

the site of AWWA's seventy-fourth Annual Conference, has changed a great deal in 74 years. In 1880 the total population of the state of Washington was 75,000, of which Seattle had slightly over 3,000. The first rail connection to the East, via Portland, Ore., had been completed the year before. The next two decades saw the completion of the Northern Pacific Railroad to Puget Sound, in 1883 ; the completion of the Great Northern, in 1893; and the Alaska gold discovery, in 1897. In 1900 Seattle was jammed with 90,000 people a 30-fold increase in 20 years. The next 10 years witnessed a frantic, furious outburst of planning progress and action. The population of the city much more than doubled during the first decade of the twentieth century, reaching 237,000 in 1910. Hills were removed, steep grades ruthlessly regraded, hundreds of acres of evil smelling tide flats filled. Parks were created, extended, and connected by boulevards. Large areas were annexed, the streetcar lines were rapidly extended to the new limits, and interurban lines linked a rapidly growing Suburbia to the city proper.

120-Kv High-Pressure Gas-Filled Cable

1. Nonleaded high-pressure gas-filled cable can be installed in a steel pipe without the insulation being adversely affected due to atmospheric exposure or mechanical handling. 2. No difficulty was encountered in the installation of 1,500-foot section lengths of cable on the commercial line. Based on the relatively low pulling stresses (7,200 pounds maximum), it appears perfectly feasible to install this type cable in lengths up to 2,000 feet. 3. The use of paper, preimpregnated with viscous compound, prevents migration at normal operating temperatures and allows installation on steep grades or in vertical runs without stop joints or other devices. 4. The satisfactory results on this type of cable are due in part to the development and use of a saturant of high viscosity and of excellent electrical properties. 5. The 60-cycle dielectric strength, both short- and long-time, is equivalent to that of oil-filled cable. 6. The impulse strength is at least the equal of oil-filled cable. 7 Power-factor values are approximately constant over a temperature range of 20 to 100 degrees centigrade. 8. The power factor was not affected even after six months at a temperature of 100 degrees centigrade. 9. The radial power-factor curve is flat even at 80 degrees centigrade, where impurities often cause erratic results. 10. Great uniformity of the insulation is indicated by the fact that on long-time voltage tests there are normally numerous partial failures, in addition to the completed failure. 11.

The First Three Essentials in the Development of the X-ray Art

THE three essentials, each of which is of equal importance with the others, in the development of the X-ray art from a diagnostic standpoint, are, in the order of their proper sequence, Equipment, Technic and Interpretation. 1. Equipment.—The technician or radiologist must first be provided with equipment before he can proceed to develop the knowledge and skill necessary for his advancement. The selection of equipment has much to do with the success or failure of his efforts; indeed, his progress and success may be made very difficult or even impossible or they may be made comparatively easy, according to the equipment used. The equipment must have sufficient capacity to do the work undertaken, otherwise, the energy, time and material used are but wasted. The machine must be capable of delivering the electrical energy required to do the work, and the tube must be of sufficient capacity to carry the necessary electrical energy and to deliver the energy thereby created. The attempt to successfully radiograph the chest of a two hundred-pound individual, at a four-foot distance, in one-tenth of a second, with a portable or bedside unit, could only result in failure. The portable or bedside units lack the capacity for such work. An attempt to successfully radiograph the chest of the same individual, at the same distance, in one-tenth of a second, with a 5–10 radiator tube, would probably result in wrecking the tube, as this tube lacks the capacity for such work. If you desire to climb a steep grade with an automobile, the engine must be large enough to develop sufficient power and the driving mechanism must have sufficient capacity; otherwise, you are wasting your energy, time and gasoline, and, furthermore, may damage the car. It is very important that the equipment be provided with the proper control, as this is of almost equal importance with capacity. In the manipulation of equipment there are four factors that bring about the end-result-the radiograph. They are: (a) distance (b) time (c) milliamperage (d) voltage or penetration There is little or no difficulty in controlling the distance factor, as this remains constant when once fixed, and may be readily fixed at any desired point. The time factor is more important, especially when a second or fractional seconds are used. With exposure from two or three seconds and upward, there should be but a small percentage of error with the careful use of a watch or clock. Fractional second exposures necessitate the use of a reasonably accurate time switch in order that such exposures may be duplicated with the minimum percentage of error. The shorter the time of exposure the greater the necessity for an accurate time switch. The milliampere factor requires the use of a finely graduated milliamperemeter. With perfect line conditions the milliampere factor should remain fairly constant when once fixed.

Sag-temperature calculations of transmission lines on steep grades

Sag-temperature calculations of transmission lines on steep grades

Valley Filling by Intermittent Streams

Streams having steep grades are usually thought to be in active vertical erosion. The writer finds, however, that many intermittent streams are not degrading but are actively aggrading parts or all of their valleys. One of the best examples of such valley filling is that of Jewell's Creek, described in this article. This little valley is found on the right bank of the Huron River about two miles above the city of Ypsilanti. The Ann Arbor sheet (U.S.G.S.) shows it as a mere ravine to the west of the little settlement of Superior. The accompanying map shows that the valley is about eight hundred and fifty feet long and that the headwaters are eighty-five feet above the Huron River. The line marking the west boundary of the map is on the line of a fence. The land to the west is under cultivation. The main stream has two tributaries, one from the southwest which enters near the mouth, and another from the northwest, joining the main stream near the head waters. Both of these branches head into cultivated fields. The main valley is divided into two distinct parts. Above where the forty-five-foot contour line crosses the valley, the flow of the water is intermittent. The floor is thereby mostly dry and covered with a species of grass that can live under dry conditions for part of the year. Below the forty-five-foot cbntour line the flow of water is constant throughout the year. Here the bottom is mostly wet and covered with swamp grass, which greatly retards the flow of water. Fig. 2, taken from a point near the mouth, gives a good idea of the lower part of the valley; while Fig. 3 gives a view of the middle portion just above the crossing of the fortyfive-foot contour. The stump shown in the face of the small cliff in the foreground is indicated on the map by the letter S, the trees are indicated by circles, and the cattle are standing just about where the fifty-foot contour line crosses the flat bottom of the

MANHOLES AS NUISANCES, THE CONTINUANCE OF WHICH MAY BE ENJOINED.

A municipal government, though invested by statute with plenary powers over the subjects of streets, sewers, drainage, water supply, and sanitation, has no right to create and permanently maintain a nuisance dangerous to health and life, which nuisance consists of openings, such as "manholes," in a sewer located in a public street contiguous to the dwelling of a citizen, the manholes being allowed to emit poisonous gases in large quantities through perforated covers placed over them. This is true, at least, says the Supreme Court of Georgia in the case of the City of Atlanta v. Warnock decided Nov. 9, 1893, where the dangerous character of the nuisance results, in all probability, not from defects inherent in the general system, but in failing to adapt it to local conditions, such as a steep grade in the particular street in which the unwholesome sewer is constructed and maintained. And there is

Design and Construction Table for Egg-Shaped Sewers

The design for the cross-section of the first brick-sewers constructed in Cleveland (except for steep grades) was substantially the usual egg-shaped section common in England and in this country. T...

The Construction of the Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fe Railroad over the Raton Mountains, and the Performance of Locomotives on its Steep Grades

The Construction of the Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fe Railroad over the Raton Mountains, and the Performance of Locomotives on its Steep Grades