Steel Yarns Research Articles

Development of textile-based transmission lines using conductive yarns and ultrasonic welding technology for e-textile applications

The development of the conductive transmission lines is crucial part for the creation of wearable electronic systems. The current focus of this study is to create signal transmission lines resistant to environmental effects. To do this, an ultrasonic welding technology has been used in order to analyze its suitability for e-textile transmission line manufacturing. Two groups of yarns, namely, stainless steel yarns and silver-plated yarns were used along with polyester fabrics. The used yarns were also varied according to their linear density and electrical conductivity. Based on the experimental results, while stainless steel yarns were merely affected in terms of conductivity change, silver-plated yarns found to be less suitable for ultrasonic welding technology. However, silver-plated yarns with higher linear density showed satisfactory results at moderate working conditions.

Textile yarn thermocouples for use in fabrics

Thermocouples are mainly used for accurate temperature measurements, but they can also be used for the generation of electric energy at low voltage and low power. If inserted into wearable garments, these thermocouples can be used to supply the electric energy required by portable electronic devices. The heat from the human body gives rise to a temperature gradient which can be converted into electric power. In this article, we study the possibility to create a thermocouple and thermopile from pure conductive textile yarns. Among the materials tested, nickel-coated carbon fiber in combination with stainless steel yarn, polypyrrole-coated carbon fiber, or carbon fiber has good potential to be a textile-based thermocouple. We also successfully made a 10-pair carbon fiber–nickel-coated carbon fiber junction thermopile from a single nickel-coated carbon fiber yarn by removing the nickel selectively through etching process.

Comparative study of cut and abrasion resistance performance of gloves made from high performance composite yarns

Cut resistant gloves are generally made from different types of high performance composite yarns. To achieve a certain level of cut resistance, material type, material composition and yarn linear density are changed which however make it sometimes difficult to decide the most suitable combination of the materials. In this work, eighteen seamless gloves were made by using core and sheath friction-spun yarns of various linear densities and core types, and their cut resistance performances were compared.For this purpose, eighteen composite yarns with three linear densities i.e. 118 tex (Ne 5), 98 tex (Ne 6) and 84 tex (Ne 7) were made on a friction spinning machine by using 5.55tex (50 denier), 11.11 tex (100 denier), 16.66 tex (150 denier), 33.33 tex (300 denier) multifilament glass yarns, and 89 denier (40 micron) and 139 denier (50 micron) monofilament steel yarn as core and Kevlar®29 staple fiber as sheath. Mechanical tests of the yarns showed that the tensile strength and tenacity of yarns increased as the linear density of glass yarns increased, whereas elongation at break and time to break increased with an increase of linear density of steel monofilament yarn. Coefficient of friction of all the yarns did not show any significant trend. Abrasion and cut resistance of the gloves made from 118 tex (Ne 5) composite yarn with 5.55tex (50 denier) glass yarn as core showed the best results, whereas no significant difference was seen in the dexterity of all the gloves.

High‐Performance Yarn Supercapacitor Based on Metal–Inorganic–Organic Hybrid Electrode for Wearable Electronics

AbstractA flexible all‐solid‐state yarn supercapacitor (YSC) based on metal–inorganic–organic ternary hybrid structure is fabricated by assembling polypyrrole@manganese oxide nanosheets@stainless steel yarn (PMS) yarn electrode of core/sheath/sheath configuration. The PMS yarn electrode combines the advantages of each component and shows excellent electrochemical performance, mechanical flexibility, and flame retardance owing to its unique structure and synergistic effect. The as‐fabricated YSC exhibits a high areal specific capacitance of 181 mF cm−2, areal energy density of 16.1 µWh cm−2, and areal power density of 10.3 mW cm−2. Moreover, the device possesses desirable voltage/current scalability and outstanding mechanical stability, which maintains 95.8% capacitance retention after 1000 bending cycles. As a demonstration, four YSCs are connected in series and then charged for 10 s to drive a light‐emitting diode (LED) digital watch. The outstanding overall performance of the YSC indicates that it is an ideal flexible power source for safe wearable electronics.

The electric energy stored in PEDOT:PSS capacitors integrated on textile substrate

PurposeThe purpose of this paper is to develop a capacitor fully integrated into a wearable textile fabric for the application on smart clothing.Design/methodology/approachA small capacitor with stainless steel yarns as the electrodes and poly-(3,4–ethylenedioxythiophene): polystryrene sulphonate (PEDOT:PSS) as the dielectric material has been made, integrated into a textile fabric. The electric performance of the capacitor was analyzed and compared with other kinds of electric capacitors.FindingsThe fabricated small, PEDOT:PSS capacitor could finally power a calculator for 37 s with the energy stored in it.Originality/valueThis finding is of an important significance for a further development on the capacitor with a better performance.

Novel high-performance asymmetric supercapacitors based on nickel-cobalt composite and PPy for flexible and wearable energy storage

Wearable fiber-shaped supercapacitor (SC) is a kind of one-dimensional flexible devices that can be directly knitted or sewn into various kinds of textile soft-substrate for wearable energy storage. Herein, acid-pretreated stainless steel yarn (SSY) has been developed to support electrodeposition of active materials of nickel/cobalt composite and polypyrrole (PPy) as the positive and negative electrodes, respectively. The asymmetric all-solid-state supercapacitors (AASs) showed both high electrochemical properties and excellent mechanical flexibility under various degrees of deformation. The highest volumetric capacitance reached 14.69 F cm−3 at the current density of 25 mA cm−3, and the maximum energy density was 3.83 mWh·cm−3 (0.032 mWh·cm−2) at a power density of 18.75 mW cm−3 (0.284 mW cm−2). The AASs were highly flexible and durable for directly being sewn into textile fabrics, and exhibited a good electrochemical stability under 6000 charging/discharging cycles. This work uses the common materials and facile methods to fabricate the flexible and wearable AASs with enhanced electrochemical properties, showing a decent way in developing flexible SC devices.

Yarn-form electrodes with high capacitance and cycling stability based on hierarchical nanostructured nickel-cobalt mixed oxides for weavable fiber-shaped supercapacitors

Integration of microelectronic devices into traditional clothing for smart wearable electronic textiles attracts increasing attentions in recent years, which will boost the economy in the next few decades. The flexible and weavable micropower units are the key component for smart wearable electronic textiles. Herein, the soft and conductive stainless steel yarn is chosen to serve as both substrate and collector, satisfying the requirements of high flexibility and good electrical conductivity. As expected, the as-obtained yarn-form electrodes based on nickel-cobalt oxide with ultrathin two-dimensional nanosheet hierarchical arrays and grown binder-freely on the conductive stainless steel yarn substrate exhibit a higher specific capacitance (90.82 mF cm−1 or 289.24 mF cm-2 at the current of 0.33 mA cm−1) and a better cyclic stability (92.4% retention of specific capacitance after 3000 cycles at the current of 1.67 mA cm−1), compared to those based on nickel-cobalt oxide with nanowires in this work. Through the further assembly of the as-prepared yarn-form electrodes into the parallel arrangement, the symmetric all-solid-state fiber-shaped supercapacitor with a high energy density (3.9 μWh·cm−1 or 12.42 μWh·cm−2) and good flexibility and weaveability is fabricated, which has great potential to serve as weavable power unit for smart wearable electronic devices.

An Experimental Study for the Production of Electromagnetic Shielding Clothing

In the modern society, human beings are often exposed to electromagnetic radiation (EMR). Despite its bad effects on the human body, few apparel scholars paid attention to developing “EMR-proof” clothing. Therefore, the purpose of this paper is to conduct experiments for the development of EMR-proof clothing. We conducted experiments to investigate the effectiveness of two EMR shielding (EMRS) fabrics – stainless steel yarn (SSY) blended fabrics and silver yarn (SY) blended fabrics – when these fabrics partially covered the clothing. In our experiments, we covered the front side of a baseball jacket and the head with the two EMRS fabrics and generated EMRs through a cell phone to measure the EMRS effects of the two fabrics by using an EMR meter. The major findings of our experiments indicated that SSY blended fabric and the SY blended fabric were effective in protecting EMR when they partially covered clothing.

Design of Novel Wearable, Stretchable, and Waterproof Cable-Type Supercapacitors Based on High-Performance Nickel Cobalt Sulfide-Coated Etching-Annealed Yarn Electrodes.

Rapid advances in functional electronics bring tremendous demands on innovation toward effective designs of device structures. Yarn supercapacitors (SCs) show advantages of flexibility, knittability, and small size, and can be integrated into various electronic devices with low cost and high efficiency for energy storage. In this work, functionalized stainless steel yarns are developed to support active materials of positive and negative electrodes, which not only enhance capacitance of both electrodes but can also be designed into stretchable configurations. The as-made asymmetric yarn SCs show a high energy density of 0.0487 mWh cm-2 (10.19 mWh cm-3 ) at a power density of 0.553 mW cm-2 (129.1 mW cm-3 ) and a specific capacitance of 127.2 mF cm-2 under an operating voltage window of 1.7 V. The fabricated SC is then made into a stretchable configuration by a prestraining-then-releasing approach using polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) tube, and its electrochemical performance can be well maintained when stretching up to a high strain of 100%. Moreover, the stretchable cable-type SCs are stably workable under water-immersed condition. The method opens up new ways for fabricating flexible, stretchable, and waterproof devices.

Ionic shot noise in an electrochemical capacitor system made of poly(3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene)-poly(styrenesulfonate) film and silver-coated polybenzoxazole-stainless steel electrodes on textile fabrics

Unusual noisy discharge profiles were observed from some of our textile-based energy storage devices having asymmetrical electrodes consisting of pure stainless steel and silver-coated polybenzoxazole yarns. Our hypothesis was that it was due to the ionic shot noise behavior that occurred in electrochemical devices and is a well-known phenomenon in electronic devices. The poly(3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene)-poly(styrenesulfonate) (PEDOT:PSS) polymer coverage on the cell surface, which functioned as a solid electrolyte in this system, was believed to play an important role. To confirm this assumption, devices made with different drop-coating strategies to obtain thin and thick layers of PEDOT:PSS polymer on the cell surface were prepared. The noisy discharge profiles were observed from devices with thin polymer layers, while those with thick layers exhibited normal discharge profiles. The morphology of cell surfaces was characterized by a stereo microscope. Cross-section analysis of a device with a thick layer was employed to further characterize its film formation and elemental properties using Scanning Electron Microscopy-Electron Dispersive Spectroscopy. Formation of multilayers of PEDOT:PSS polymer on the cell surface allowed a continuous interaction between electrode metals and PEDOT:PSS ions at the interface area. The noisy component was caused by the movement of silver ions hopping from one trap to the next. A qualitative model of the autocorrelation function executed to the data with noisy behavior further confirmed the ionic shot noise phenomenon.

The gamma radiation shielding effectiveness of textured steel yarn based fabrics

Lead aprons that are lead-shielding products are generally used for personal protection of physicians and patients from X-ray (gamma) radiation during medical operations; lead has environmental disadvantages, with high toxicity, though. Therefore, the aim of this research was to produce an environmentally friendly and flexible textile-based radiation shielding material. In this work, 2/2 twill, 3/1 twill, Herringbone, Whipcord, which are twill derivatives, Barathea and Crêpe woven fabrics, which are sateen derivatives, woven with textured steel yarns, which have soft feeling and flexibility, and gamma radiation shielding effectiveness of these fabrics were investigated and were not studied in the references. The effects of fabric structural characteristics such as weave, conductive weft yarn density, fabric thickness and porosity on these properties were analysed graphically and statistically. It is observed that with the biggest thicknesses and lowest porosities, Barathea and Crêpe woven fabrics performed better gamma radiation shielding performance than other woven fabrics. The samples F1 and E1, woven with Barathea and Crêpe weave, have the highest gamma radiation shielding effectiveness, thanks to the highest fabric thicknesses and lowest porosities. In addition, the increases of textured steel yarn density improved the gamma radiation shielding effectiveness of woven fabrics.

Shielding of electromagnetic radiation by multilayer textile sets

This paper presents the continuation of research on shielding efficiency (SE) of electromagnetic radiation (EMR) by woven fabric made of cotton (warps and wefts) and a hybrid yarn (wefts). This hybrid yarn was made of stainless steel yarn by Bekinox wrapped with an enamelled copper wire from Synflex Elektro GmbH, Germany. The pitch of copper coil on a hybrid yarn equals 3 mm. The wefts were introduced into the fabric in the following order: 1 hybrid yarn, 1 cotton yarn, 1 hybrid yarn, 1 cotton yarn, etc. The construction of this specific fabric was proven to be the most efficient in terms of the hybrid weft construction and the fabric construction to shield EMR among other previously tested fabrics with different weft configuration. The current study proposes to verify the effect of the number of layers of the fabrics and their mutual configuration on the final SE of the multilayered set. Some of the most interesting findings of this study are that increasing the number of layers placed on top of one another with an offset angle of 0° to more than two does not provide a higher SE; however, using three such layers provides an SE of 56 dB, which is over two times higher than that provided by a single layer. Increasing the number of layers of fabric aligned at an angle of 45° provides a higher SE only for a frequency of 30 MHz.

A Flexible and Knittable Fiber Supercapacitor for Wearable Energy Storage with High Energy Density and Mechanical Robustness

A flexible and knittable symmetric all-solid-state fiber supercapacitor (ASSFS) was fabricated by using two polypyrrole (PPy) microcone arrays coated stainless steel yarns (SSY) as fiber electrodes and current collectors. The microcone arrays and interconnected network structure of PPy could increase transport path for ions/electrons and enlarge the real contact area between PPy and electrolyte, leading to superior specific capacitance. In addition, the fiber electrode has a high tensile strength of ∼1200 MPa and elongation at break is 12.5%. The outstanding mechanical performance of the fiber electrode is attributed to the high mechanical properties of the SSY and the protection of PPy coating. The resultant ASSFS exhibits maximum specific capacitance of 42.7 F/cm3, energy density of 3.8 mWh/cm3 and power density of 388 mW/cm3 (normalized to the whole device). The specific capacitance maintains 100% at different bending angles and 93.5% of its initial value after 1000 bending cycles. As a demonstration, a fabric and a bracelet knitted with five ASSFSs connected in series can light a LED.

Electrochemical Impedance Analysis of a PEDOT:PSS-Based Textile Energy Storage Device.

A textile-based energy storage device with electroactive PEDOT:PSS (poly(3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene)/poly(4-styrenesulfonate)) polymer functioning as a solid-state polyelectrolyte has been developed. The device was fabricated on textile fabric with two plies of stainless-steel electroconductive yarn as the electrodes. In this study, cyclic voltammetry and electrochemical impedance analysis were used to investigate ionic and electronic activities in the bulk of PEDOT:PSS and at its interfaces with stainless steel yarn electrodes. The complex behavior of ionic and electronic origins was observed in the interfacial region between the conductive polymer and the electrodes. The migration and diffusion of the ions involved were confirmed by the presence of the Warburg element with a phase shift of 45° (n = 0.5). Two different equivalent circuit models were found by simulating the model with the experimental results: (QR)(QR)(QR) for uncharged and (QR)(QR)(Q(RW)) for charged samples. The analyses also showed that the further the distance between electrodes, the lower the capacitance of the cell. The distribution of polymer on the cell surface also played important role to change the capacitance of the device. The results of this work may lead to a better understanding of the mechanism and how to improve the performance of the device.

Study of the Contact Resistance of Interlaced Stainless Steel Yarns Embedded in Hybrid Woven Fabrics

Abstract The contact resistance of two interlacing electro-conductive yarns embedded in a hybrid woven fabric will constitute a problem for electro-conductive textiles under certain circumstances. A high contact resistance can induce hotspots, while a variable contact resistance may cause malfunctioning of the components that are interconnected by the electro-conductive yarns. Moreover, the contact robustness should be preserved over time and various treatments such as washing or abrading should not alter the functioning of the electro-conductive textiles. The electrical resistance developed in the contact point of two interlacing electro-conductive yarns is the result of various factors. The influence of diameter of the electro-conductive stainless steel yarns, the weave pattern, the weft density, and the abrasion on the contact resistance was investigated. Hybrid polyester fabrics were produced according to the design of experiments (DoE) and statistical models were found that describe the variation of the contact resistance with the selected input parameters. It was concluded that the diameter of the stainless steel warp and weft yarns has a statistically significant influence on the contact resistance regardless of the weave. Weft density had a significant influence on the contact resistance but only in case of the twill fabrics. Abrasion led to an increase in contact resistance regardless of the weave pattern and the type of stainless steel yarn that was used. Finally, a combination of parameters that leads to plain and twill fabrics with low contact resistance and robust contacts is recommended.

Temperature dependent emissivity of different stainless steel textiles in the infrared range

We experimentally investigated the infrared properties of a set of steel textiles, prepared using different type of fabrics. Infrared emission of the textiles was characterized in the mid-infrared range, i.e. 8÷14 μm, by observing their temperature evolution under heating regime with a focal plane array (FPA) infrared camera. Standard test method for measuring and compensating emissivity using infrared imaging radiometers was applied to the set of metallic textiles. The obtained experimental results allowed to retrieve the infrared emissivity at different applied temperatures. Although their infrared emission show some differences depending on the specific fabric, all the investigated textiles composed of steel yarns appear to be suitable for thermal shielding applications. Finally, the measured data were interpreted by means of the finite-difference time-domain (FDTD) numerical simulations as well as using Plank's theory of black-body radiation.

Comparative study of the weft-knitted strain sensors

In this study, weft-knitted strain-sensing structures are described, along with the materials and manufacturing techniques required to produce the fabrics on a computerised flat-bed knitting machine. Knitted sensing fabrics with conductive yarns, i.e. silver-plated nylon yarn and polyester-blended stainless steel yarn have been created with different design possibilities. A laboratory test set-up was built to characterise the knitted sensors and the resulting equivalent resistance under the different level of strains. The most successful samples have been realised through a series of single conductive courses within the interlock base fabric structure using silver-plated nylon in terms of responsivity, repeatability and lower electrical signal drift. Deficiencies associated with strain-sensing structures realised through the intermeshing of conductive yarns have also been addressed.

Evaluation of electromagnetic shielding effectiveness of multi-axial fabrics and their reinforced PES composites

The usage of electrical and electronic equipments has been increasing in daily life, which has a potential hazardous impact on humans and other living organisms. In this paper, multi-axial fabrics containing steel yarns and carbon filaments, and their polyester (PES) resin-reinforced composites have been prepared for electromagnetic shielding applications. The electromagnetic shielding effectiveness (EMSE) of these structures was determined by using coaxial transmission line measurement technique. There were eight different multi-axial fabrics constructed. It was observed that the amount and the orientation of carbon and stainless steel yarns influenced the EMSE performances of multi-axial fabrics and their reinforced PES composites. The structures containing both carbon filaments and stainless steel yarns exhibited better EMSE than the ones including only one type of conductive yarns or filaments. Also, the EMSE performance of multi-axial fabrics was found better than their reinforced composites. The best EMSE results were obtained for the fabric, including two layers of yarns (steel and carbon) on top of each other in the centre with the angle of 45 and −45°.

Smart textile reinforcement with embedded stainless steel yarns for the detection of wetting and infiltration in TRC structures

This study examines the feasibility of smart textile reinforced concrete (TRC) elements with self-sensing capabilities that are based on stainless steel yarns knitted in the textile grid. The self-sensory structural element combines the advantages of the glass fiber based TRC technology for thin-walled structural elements with those stemming from the electrical properties of yarns made of stainless steel filaments knitted in the textile fabric. The current study explores the ability of the yarns to sense humidity governed by infiltration of water through cracked zones along the structure. To examine this concept and its potential feasibility, a TRC beam specimen with stainless steel sensory yarns knitted in a glass fiber fabric is tested and monitored under different environmental conditions. The paper looks into the ability of the embedded steel yarns to detect wetting through the comparison of four electrical schemes and four sensing concepts. The results of the tests demonstrate the features of each sensory scheme and reveal its potential use as a basis for functional monitoring in TRC structures.

Color and electrical resistance evaluation of cotton fabrics composed of stainless steel yarns treated with direct and reactive dyes

The aim of this work was to investigate the color change of cotton fabrics with stainless steel yarns incorporated. In order to establish the impact of conductive yarns’ composition properties in the fabric, concentrations and two different dyeing profiles based on direct and reactive dyes chemistry were applied. The success of this novel e-textile design was evaluated colorimetrically with two different dye concentrations as well through various linear electrical resistances to obtain solid statistical conclusions. The dyed samples were colorimetrically evaluated and the electrical resistances of conductive yarns inside the fabric structure were compared and discussed statistically before and after dyeing. The results provided evidence that dyeing has great influence on electrical resistances of conductive yarns used as transmission lines for electro-textile applications. The greatest changes in electrical resistances were observed with samples including thin conductive yarns and untwisted conductive yarn after dyeing processes. Additionally, it can be concluded that the presence of stainless steel conductive threads significantly retards the dyeing processes depending on the dyestuff concentration and weave type, resulting in major color differences, especially when plain weave type is used or the dyestuff concentration is less than 1% for twill and sateen weaves.