Steel Storage Research Articles

Investigating the Catastrophic Roof Failure of a Fatty Acid Storage Tank: Causes, Mechanisms, and Safety Implications

This paper investigates the catastrophic failure of the roof weld on a carbon steel storage tank at a Fatty Acids plant, which was attributed to pressure overload. The incident resulted in the tank's roof, weighing over 5 tons and spanning 8 meters in diameter, being propelled 25 meters from the tank. Despite installing several safety devices, including pressure regulating valves, pressure indicator controls, and pressure vacuum relief valves, inadequate maintenance led to their malfunction. This study examines the mechanisms and causes behind the failure, highlighting the crucial role of regular maintenance in ensuring the functionality of safety instruments. While neither toxic nor flammable, the plant's compressed air system poses a significant hazard due to the energy stored at slight overpressure, necessitating vigilant management by the safety department. The findings underscore the importance of robust maintenance strategies and procedural adherence to prevent similar incidents, enhancing industrial storage systems' overall safety and reliability.

Microbiologically Influenced Corrosion in B35 Carbon Steel Storage Tank: The Influence of Diesel Blend Mixed Culture in the Oil-Water Interphase

Microbiologically Influenced Corrosion in B35 Carbon Steel Storage Tank: The Influence of Diesel Blend Mixed Culture in the Oil-Water Interphase

Experimental Research on Mechanical Properties of Connection Joint Between Inclined Strut and Column in Steel Storage Rack

Experimental Research on Mechanical Properties of Connection Joint Between Inclined Strut and Column in Steel Storage Rack

Progressive collapse of beam-to-upright subassemblies of steel storage racks under a column removal scenario

This paper presents an experimental investigation into progressive collapse behaviour of steel storage pallet racks under a column removal scenario. The double-half-span substructure is applied in experimental tests. A total of eight substructures are tested, considering two types of beam-to-upright connections, i.e., boltless and bolted connections, commonly used in pallet racks. Different upright profiles and thicknesses, varied beam heights, and the number of tabs are carefully considered in the tests, and their effects on progressive collapse behaviour of pallet racks are thus evaluated. In particular, the influence of pallet loads is carefully evaluated in this paper. Detailed experimental results of all specimens are provided, including the full-range force-displacement curves and the failure modes. The dominated failure modes observed in the tests are the combination of tab crack and bolt bearing failure leading to tearing of beam-end-connector (T+B), the combination of tab crack and bolt bearing failure leading to tearing of upright wall (T+C), and tab crack (T). The test results revealed that the presence of pallet loads greatly influences structural progressive collapse behaviour and thus should be considered in further studies. Moreover, in bolted connections, smaller beam heights and thinner column thicknesses exhibit better resistance against progressive collapse. Whereas in boltless connections, increasing the number of tabs enhances the resistance against progressive collapse. Generally, the bolted connections are proven to have better resistance against progressive collapse than boltless connections and can be used in storage racks to improve structural robustness.

Research on the Corrosion Resistance of Electrodeposited Ni-SiC Composites Constructed for Steel Storage Tank Application.

In this paper, the effects of the SiC phase incorporated in Ni substrate deposits on storage tank steel during electrodeposition at different current densities are explored. The microstructure, phase content, and corrosion resistance of the resulting Ni-SiC composites were investigated by scanning electron microscopy (SEM) matched with energy disperse spectroscopy (EDS), X-ray diffraction (XRD), and an electrochemical workstation, respectively. SEM micrographs and EDS results show that at 2.5 A/dm2, the composites presented a smooth and compact structure with high SiC content, while at 1.8 or 3.2 A/dm2, it became uneven and loose in structure with low SiC content. XRD patterns showed that the nickel grain size of composites firstly increased and then decreased with the growth of the current density. Notably, the Ni-SiC composite produced at 2.5 A/dm2 possessed a higher corrosion potential (-0.507 V) and lower corrosion current density (2.439 μA/cm2), illustrating that its excellent anti-corrosion ability was superior than that of other two composites. Hence, SiC co-deposited at 2.5 A/dm2 conducted as a protective barrier and inhibited the corrosion rate against a corrosion medium of Cl- and SO42- ions. In addition, the corrosion relationship illustrated that the SiC content of Ni-SiC composite firstly increased and then decreased with the growth of the current density, while the corrosion weight loss of Ni-SiC composites firstly decreased and then increased.

Numerical characterisation of reaction forces’ contribution to initial stiffness in speed-lock beam-to-upright connections

This article presents a detailed numerical model of speed-lock (boltless) beam-to-upright connections in steel storage pallet rack systems. The model is capable of predicting initial stiffness and characterising the reaction forces of connector-to-upright interactions. The study examines nine configurations, combining three types of uprights and three types of beams with a common connector. Initially, experimental tests were conducted using the monotonic cantilever test method according to EN 15512 standard, with initial stiffness calculated using a standardised version of the initial stiffness method. Subsequently, a numerical analysis was developed through a finite element model based on the experimental setup. The model introduces new geometric details, evaluating each impact on behaviour, particularly on initial stiffness. Results show that numerical accuracy improves with detailed components such as inclined tabs, more detailed perforations, and 3D weld modelling. The contribution of reaction forces of connector-to-upright interactions to initial stiffness was analysed, considering the impact of the rotation centre’s position. It was found that a lower rotation centre position reduces the connector-to-upright lateral contact contribution while increasing tab-to-slot interaction contributions. The impact of beam height and beam weld position on initial stiffness was also analysed, with results showing that increasing these variables consistently led to increased initial stiffness. Finally, the rotation centre’s position was shown to evolve throughout the test, redefining the contribution of interactions. It clarified that connector-to-upright lateral interaction and tab1-to-slot1 and tab2-to-slot2 interactions have the highest contributions. This information is valuable for rack manufacturers to improve, optimise, and ensure the safety of their designs.

Parametric seismic fragility model for elephant-foot buckling in unanchored steel storage tanks

The parametric seismic fragility model of elephant-foot buckling (EFB) in the tank wall of the unanchored storage tanks is introduced by utilizing the results of a parametric study of eighteen tank-soil configurations. The model can be used to rapidly assess the seismic vulnerability to EFB for a larger number of tanks. The parametric study involved a 1D cloud-based soil response analysis to relate the ground-motion intensity measure at the bedrock with that at the free surface, and a pushover analysis of the refined finite element model of the tank to assess the engineering demand parameter in terms of axial compressive stress in the tank wall and the critical value that triggers EFB. As a consequence, the parametric seismic fragility model can be applied to intensity measures at the bedrock, as it is demonstrated for the spectral acceleration at the tank’s impulsive period, Se,bedrock,EFB, and the peak ground acceleration, PGAbedrock,EFB. The input parameters of the introduced seismic fragility model are the harmonic average shear-wave velocity in the top 30 m of soil, Vs,30, the slenderness ratio of the tank, H/R, the ratio between radius and wall thickness of the tank, R/t, and the standard deviation of log values for the intensity measure causing EFB. The model reliably predicts the median intensity measure causing the onset of EFB in the investigated tank-soil configurations, especially when Se,bedrock,EFB is selected for the intensity measure. However, further investigation is required to enhance the accuracy of predicted intensity measures that trigger EFB by considering the dynamic impact between the base plate and the foundation during an earthquake and accounting for the complete soil-structure interaction effects.

Effects of random corrosion on seismic performance of an un-anchored steel storage tank

Steel storage tanks are functional components in the oil, gas, and petrochemical industries. Corrosion of steel is one of the influential factors in the seismic vulnerability of tanks. The purpose of this study is to evaluate the seismic safety of an oil storage tank under the effect of random corrosion. To this end, a broad tank was simulated in ABAQUS finite element software, considering various patterns of random corrosion with different standard deviations alongside uniform corrosion. This study employed incremental dynamic analysis to calculate the buckling capacity of the tank using the Budiansky–Roth procedure. Also, it investigated the corrosion effects on the tank uplift. The results of the modal analysis showed that compared to the perfect tank in the cases of random corrosion, the period of the fundamental mode has increased by about 7 %, more than uniform corrosion. Also, the number of significant modes has increased with the increase of standard deviation. Nonlinear Response History Analysis results revealed that the corrosion pattern and its standard deviation play a crucial role in the reduction of the buckling capacity of the tank shell and the form of its occurrence. However, there is not a noticeable difference between random and uniform corrosion in the value of tank uplift increase.

Fitness for Service (FFS) and Fatigue Assessment for Shell Distorted Steel Storage Tank Based on API 579-1/ASME FFS-1

Fitness for Service (FFS) and Fatigue Assessment for Shell Distorted Steel Storage Tank Based on API 579-1/ASME FFS-1

A review: plastic analysis in structures

Purpose Brief introduction on the importance and the need for plastic analysis methods were presented in the beginning section of this review. The plastic method for analysis was considered to be the more advanced method of analysis because of its ability to represent the true behaviour of the steel structures. Then in the following section, a literature analysis has been carried out on the previous investigations done on steel plates, steel beams and steel frames by other authors. The behaviour of them under different types of loading were presented and are under the investigation of innovative new analysis methods. Design/methodology/approach Structure member connections also have the potential for plastic failure. In this study, the authors have highlighted a few topics to be discussed. The three topics in this study are T-end plate connections to a square hollow section, semi-rigid connections and cold-formed steel storage racks with spine bracings using speed-lock connections. Connection is one of the important parts of a structure that ensures the integrity of the structure. Finally, in this technical paper, the authors introduce some topics related to seismic action. Application of the Theory of Plastic Mechanism Control in seismic design is studied in the beginning. At the end, its in-depth application for moment resisting frames-eccentrically braced frames dual systems is investigated. Findings When this study involves the design of a plastic structure, the design criteria must involve the ultimate load rather than the yield stress. As the steel behaves in the plastic range, it means the capacity of the steel has reached the ultimate load. Ultimate load design and load factor design are the methods in the range of plastic analysis. After the steel capacity has reached beyond the yield stress, it fulfills the requirement in this method. The plastic analysis method offers a consistent and logical approach to structural analysis. It provides an economical solution in terms of steel weight, as the sections designed using this method are smaller compared with elastic design methods. Originality/value The plastic method is the primary approach used in the analysis and design of statically indeterminate frame structures.

Optimization of Pickup Vehicle Scheduling for Steel Logistics Park with Mixed Storage

Pickup vehicle scheduling in steel logistics parks is an important problem for determining the outbound efficiency of steel products. In a steel logistics park, each yard contains different types of steel products, which provides flexible yard selection for each pickup operation. In this case, the yard allocation and the loading sequence for each vehicle must be considered simultaneously in pickup vehicle scheduling, which greatly increases the scheduling complexity. To overcome this challenge, in this paper, we propose a pickup vehicle scheduling problem with mixed steel storage (PVSP-MSS) to optimize the makespan of pickup vehicles and the makespan of steel logistics parks simultaneously. The optimization problem is formulated as a multi-objective mixed-integer linear programming model, and an enhanced algorithm based on SPEA2 (ESPEA) is proposed to solve the problem with a high efficiency. In the ESPEA, a cooperative initialization strategy is firstly proposed to initialize the vehicle pickup sequence for each yard. Then, an insertion decoding method is designed to improve the scheduling efficiency, utilizing the idle time of a yard. Furthermore, local search technology based on critical paths is proposed for the ESPEA to improve the solution quality. Experiments are executed based on data collected from a real steel logistics park. The results confirm that the ESPEA can significantly reduce both the makespan of each pickup vehicle and the makespan of the steel logistics park.

Lateral load behavior of shear connections between steel storage racks and the spine bracing with posts

High-rise steel storage racks are cold-formed thin-walled steel frames, which achieve their lateral strength and stiffness by the use of a spine bracing system in the down-aisle direction commonly located at a short horizontal distance away from the main rack frames. The shear connections between the main rack frame and the spine bracing system play a dominant role in the effectiveness of the spine bracing system. This paper experimentally investigates the behavior of the shear connections used in industrial practice between a steel storage rack and the spine bracing system with posts using four groups of three nominally identical connection specimens. By employing a digital image correlation (DIC) system, the tests generate comprehensive data and establish the real-time deformation fields of individual components of such shear connections. Based on the component-based approach, a linear-elastic analytical model is developed for the type of shear connections under consideration. The proposed analytical model explicitly captures the behavior of the individual connection components, including the three-dimensional flexural bending of endplates, as well as the distortions of the open sections of the upright and the bracing post. Based on the proposed model, this paper quantifies the contribution of each component towards the total deformation of the shear connections. The investigation establishes that the cross-sectional distortion of the bracing post and the out-of-plane bending of the upright web are the most flexible components of such shear connections. Recommendations associated with the shear connections under consideration are proposed for the rack designers and manufacturers.

Numerical Simulation of Dynamic Response of Atmospheric Storage Tanks Under Coupling Effect of External Two-source Blast

In the event of a material leak in an atmospheric steel tank farm, it is likely to cause a fire and explosion, leading to an escalation of secondary accidents. According to the historical domino accident data to analyze the accident characteristics, the explosion phenomenon is common in atmospheric pressure steel storage tank accidents, and the coupling phenomenon is obvious. However, there is a dearth of research on multiple explosions in steel storage tank farms. This paper investigates the dynamic response of an atmospheric pressure storage tank under the coupling effect of simultaneous detonation of two explosive wave sources. With the help of finite element analysis software to establish a simplified model of the tank under the action of two sources of blast wave coupling, to explore the propagation law of the blast wave scenario and the dynamic response process of the tank. The deformation damage of the tanks by the angular size of the blast load is revealed, and the structural energy changes are analyzed. The study of the dynamic response of steel tanks under the dual-source explosion scenario can provide a theoretical reference basis for quantitative damage in realistic scenarios.

Numerical investigation of blast loading effects on a thin-walled cylindrical steel storage tank

Cylindrical storage vessels with thin walls are extensively utilized across various industrial sectors, including oil, gas, and petrochemicals, serving as crucial repositories for substances relevant to these industries. However, their susceptibility to fire and explosions underscores the need for comprehensive understanding and mitigation strategies. Amidst the escalating frequency of subversive attacks, regional conflicts, and other destabilizing events, a thorough comprehension of blast loading dynamics becomes paramount. These imperatives are compounded by recent occurrences, notably the cataclysmic explosion at the Beirut port in 2020 and the conflagration at a chemical plant in Texas in 2019, which starkly emphasize the pressing necessity for enhanced safety protocols. Thin-walled structures are particularly vulnerable to explosions, making the prediction of their response crucial. This study focuses on developing a computational model tailored for a horizontally oriented, simply supported, thin-walled water storage tank, utilizing advanced Abaqus/Explicit software. The primary objective is to investigate the impact of water when exposed to the explosive load generated by a 50 kg-TNT detonation at a distance of 0.50 m. The novelty of this work lies in the integration of advanced computational techniques, including the use of ConWEP 2.0, a sophisticated software framework developed by the U.S. Army, which integrates established formulations outlined by Kingery and Bulmash, as well as the employment of the Jones-Wilkins-Lee (JWL) Equation-of-State (EOS) alongside a sophisticated Smoothed-Particle Hydrodynamics (SPH) technique. The results reveal a significant reduction in deformation and damage inflicted upon the storage tank when subjected to explosive forces, attributed to the presence of water. This crucial finding highlights the effectiveness of water inclusion in enhancing the structural resilience of these tanks against potentially catastrophic blasts, thereby providing valuable insights for improved safety and durability in industrial environments.

Using green corrosion inhibitor to reduce maintenance cost for carbon steel saline water storage systems in the oil industry

Abstract Carbon steel has long been used in storing the saline water that results from oil washing in the oil industry. However, a high corrosion rate is reported, resulting in significant economic losses for oil companies. In the Middle East oil field, the temperature touches 50⁰C in Summer, causing increasing in corrosion rate for saline water steel storage tanks and pipes. In the present work, abundantly available wheat straw was used to prepare a cost-effective silicate inhibitor. The high inhibition efficiency of up to 94 % decreased the corrosion rate from severe corrosion for no-inhibitor specimen to close to low corrosion category for optimum inhibitor concentration specimen. The mechanism of the inhibition effect is the formation of a chemically adsorbed layer on the steel surface, which is successfully described by Langmuir isotherm. Additionally, at high concentrations of nano-silica, complex aggregates might form and be physically adsorbed on the surface of steel above the chemically adsorbed nano-silicate monolayer.

Detection of movement resistance and friction coefficient in the transport of building materials and construction materials

In the production of building materials and construction materials, continuously operating conveying equipment is commonly used, including roller conveyors. Roller conveyors are devices designed for horizontal, slightly ascending or descending transport of piece products moving on a system of rotating rollers of different shapes (cylindrical, conical, disc, pulley or according to the profile of the conveyed object). The rotating rollers are placed in the track frame (supporting structure), which can be either stable, relocatable or adjustable (height and length adjustable, so-called scissor conveyors). An analogue of the roller conveyor is the pulley conveyor, where instead of rollers, discs - pulleys are mounted on a non-rotating axis. Several discs are installed on the axis with gaps. The pulleys on adjacent axes overlap so that there is no continuous gap. The track is used for handling flat building parts and objects such as metal sheets, glass panes, furniture parts, etc. When transporting item building materials or bulk building materials placed in storage boxes which are transported on a powered roller track on pallets, a driving force is required depending on the angle of inclination of the roller track, the weight of the load, the number of rollers on which the load rests and the coefficient of shear friction during movement. The paper presents a laboratory device that has been designed to detect the adhesion force during the transport of piece loads by a roller conveyor. On the implemented device, it is possible to determine in laboratory conditions the amount of resistance to the movement of the load on the driven roller conveyor depending on the weight of the load. The paper presents measured values of the shear friction coefficient during the movement of a steel storage box on a driven roller track. In this paper, a driven roller track is used for laboratory tests, where the drive of the rollers is implemented by so-called short chains. In addition to horizontal tracks, this chain drive allows you to drive rising tracks with variable gradients or even rising curved tracks.

Optimization for Storage Scheduling of Steel Plates Based on Cloud Manufacturing Platform

With the development of cloud manufacturing, the automation of storage scheduling becomes popular in the steel industry. However, the high customization of steel plates makes the storage scheduling too complex to be optimized. To overcome this challenge, we propose to utilize the big data of steel plate orders and warehouse status to optimize the storage scheduling of steel plates. The agglomerative hierarchical clustering is firstly adopted to reduce the complexity of excessive steel plate specifications, then an optimization problem is defined to formulate the storage scheduling of steel plates with safety. A two-stage heuristic (TSH) algorithm is proposed to solve the optimization problem with low complexity. In TSH, steel plates are firstly assigned to multiple stacks, and then the arrangement of each stack is determined. Experiments are executed based on a cloud manufacturing platform for steel plates production and storage, and the results prove the effectiveness of the proposed works.

The Static and Dynamic Behavior of Steel Storage Tanks over Different Types of Clay Soil

Steel storage tanks are widely used in different fields. Most of these tanks contain hazardous materials, which may lead to disasters and environmental damage for any design errors. There are many reasons which cause the failure of these tanks such as excessive base plate settlement, shear failure of soil, liquid sloshing, and buckling of the tank shell. In this study, five models of above-ground steel storage tanks resting over different types of clay soils (medium-stiff clay, stiff clay, and very stiff clay soils) are analyzed using the finite element program ADINA under the effect of static and dynamic loading. The soil underneath the tank is truly simulated using a 3D solid (porous media) element and the used material model is the Cam-clay soil model. The fluid in the tank is modeled depending on the Navier–Stokes fluid equation. Moreover, the earthquake record used in this analysis is the horizontal component of the Loma Prieta Earthquake. The analyzed tanks are circular steel tanks with the same height (10 m) and different diameters (ranging from 15 m to 40 m). The soil under the tanks has a noticeable effect on the dynamic behavior of the studied tanks. The tanks resting over the medium-stiff clay (the weakest soil) give a lower permanent settlement after the earthquake because of its low elastic modulus which leads to the absorption of the earthquake waves in comparison to the other types of soil. There are 29.6% and 35.6% increases in the peak dynamic stresses under the tanks in the cases of stiff clay and very stiff clay soils, respectively. The maximum values of the dynamic vertical stresses occur at a time around 13.02 s, which is close to the peak ground acceleration of the earthquake.

Full‐scale tests of industrial steel storage pallet racks

Industrial steel storage pallet racks are framed structures typically made of cold‐formed steel profiles. The characteristics and the variability of the racking systems in terms of components and configurations make their behaviour quite complex to be predicted and the “design by testing” approach is commonly adopted. As part of an extensive research on the racks’ static and seismic behaviour carried out at the University of Trento, a total of eight full‐scale tests on four‐level two‐bay commercial pallet racks were performed, taking advantage of an innovative full‐scale testing set‐up. The experimental plan comprised of two preliminary tests in which racks with an initial out‐of‐plumb were vertically loaded up to their collapse and of six monotonic push‐over tests with three different levels of vertical loads and an inverse triangular pattern of horizontal forces in the down-aisle (longitudinal) direction. Tests’ results enabled investigation of the failure modes and evaluation of the racks’ behaviour factor q. The main features and findings of this experimental study are presented and discussed in the paper.

Experimental and analytical studies on the behavior of connections between high-rise braced steel storage racks and the spine bracing

The primary lateral load resisting system of the high-rise braced steel storage racks is the spine bracing located at a short distance away from the rear rack frames. The connections between the rack frames and spine bracing, which transmit the horizontal stabilizing forces, dictate the effectiveness of the spine bracing and the global performance of the entire high-rise racking system. The first part of this paper experimentally establishes the behavior of the connections between the racks and the spine bracing under lateral loads, utilizing four groups of three nominally identical test specimens. A digital image correlation (DIC) measurement system is employed to generate comprehensive data associated with the behavior of individual components of such connections. The behavior of the connection components is quantified and discussed based on the three-dimensional deformation field recorded by the DIC system. The second part of this paper develops a component-based elastic analytical model for the connections between the racks and the spine bracing under consideration. The endplate spatial flexural bending mechanism, as well as the upright cross-section distortional behavior, are explicitly considered by the analytical model. The contributions of each individual component towards the total deformation of the connections are quantified. The paper concludes with design and construction recommendations for the enhancement of the connections between the racks and the spine bracing, while recognizing the limitations of this research.