Chemical Composition Of Steel Research Articles

Heat treatment behavior of alternator shafts steels

The present paper analyzes properties such as the hardness, the tensile and toughness behaviour and the microstructure for multiple bars of C40 and C45 steel used for shafts in alternators. The materials have been manufactured by rolling processes, followed by normalization treatments or forging processes followed by normalization treatments. Heat treatments are performed on steels to produce different microstructural phases that affect the mechanical properties. Microstructural changes during austenite decomposition depend on the transformation temperature region and cooling rate. Over the years, many experimental studies have been performed to reveal the microstructural changes during isothermal holding or continuous cooling of austenite for various kinds of steels. The isothermal transformation (IT) diagram, which is also called the time-temperature-transformation (TTT) diagram, and the continuous cooling transformation (CCT) diagram have been developed to graphically characterize the decomposition transformation as a function of time and temperature. However, when these diagrams are based on experimental measurements, several limitations are present. Each diagram is limited because the temperatures at which specific transformations occur can vary due to several factors, such as: the chemical composition of steel, the solid solution condition in the austenite prior to cooling and transformation, the presence of precipitates in austenite, the prior austenite grain size, and the applied stresses during the transformation.

Optimization of the Composition and Amount of Nonmetallic Inclusions in a Continuously Cast Billet Based on the Deoxidation of the Melt with Aluminum and Calcium Carbide

The methods of optical and electron microscopies are used to estimate the degree of contamination of D carbon steel with nonmetallic inclusions in samples taken in all stages of steelmaking at the electrosmelting workshop of the Volzhskii Piping Factory. The procedure of smelting was carried out by using the following technology: production of semifinished products in the electric arc furnace → processing of the melt in devices for out-of-furnace treatment → continuous casting. We determine the degree of contamination of steel and the chemical composition of nonmetallic inclusions in the samples for two different procedures of deoxidation: with the AB-87 aluminum and CaC2 deoxidizers. It is shown that calcium carbide positively affects the chemical composition of steel and the process of formation of nonmetallic inclusions and leads to the modification of corundum inclusions, and their globularization in the initial stages of steelmaking. The favorable shape of the inclusions formed in the initial stages of the out-of-furnace treatment is preserved in the subsequent stages, which facilitates their efficient removal. The application of CaC2 as a deoxidizer makes it possible to produce continuously casted billets with a twice lower degree of contamination with nonmetallic inclusions.

Peculiarities of influence of parameters of the post-deformation heat treatment and chemical composition of steel on the formation of actual size of grain

Peculiarities of influence of parameters of the post-deformation heat treatment and chemical composition of steel on the formation of actual size of grain

Possibilities of complex experimental study of thermophysical and thermodynamic properties of selected steels

In this paper, selected key thermophysical and thermodynamical properties of steels (three alloys based on Fe–C–Cr) such as solidus (TS) and liquidus (TL) temperatures, peritectic transformation temperatures (TP), heats of fusion (ΔHF), specific heat capacities(cP), surface tension (σ), and wettability expressed by the wetting angle (θ) of liquid steel on alumina substrate were experimentally determined in a high-temperature area up to the temperature of 1600°C. The effect of the temperature and the chemical composition of steel on these properties was investigated using 3D heat flux DSC (Differential Scanning Calorimetry) and a sessile drop method. The interaction of the steel samples with the alumina substrate was studied by SEM, EDX and XRD methods. To assess the influence of the major elements (carbon and chromium), the steels with different carbon and chromium content, which varied in the range of 0.077–0.381wt.% and 0.049–4.990wt.%, were chosen. It was shown that increasing carbon and chromium content led to a decrease in phase transformation temperatures and thermal capacities, as well as an increase in the heat of fusion, surface tension, and wetting angle. Furthermore, the rising temperature increases the thermal capacities and wetting angles. Whereas the surface tension followed the opposite trend.

Improving steel melting intensity in the process of electrosmelting from waste and pellets (HBI)

The paper addresses the issue on improving the intensity of melting in the production of steels using hot briquetted iron (HBI) in the charge that mostly consists of metal waste. An analysis has been performed into the features of melting that uses charge of complex composition. To ensure the boiling of metal bath, it is recommended to introduce to the bath carbon-containing raw materials in the form of steel waste in the amount exceeding 80 %. It was established that applying HBI almost does not reduce the yield of usable metal due to a high content of metal waste that makes up the charge.At the same time, the paper analyses the role of silicon and manganese oxidation process in the refining of liquid steel at melting the alloy wastes used as charge materials in an electric arc furnace. The dependences of equilibrium concentrations of oxygen and silicon at different temperatures in the system Fe‒Si‒O have been given. In addition, the dependence diagram of manganese oxidation products in a liquid iron on the temperature and concentration of manganese in the alloy MnO‒FeO has been constructed. The equilibrium concentrations of oxygen and silicon with carbon deoxidizing capability have been defined, in the field of liquid silicates and in the field of solid SiO2.The high-quality silicon and manganese oxidation when smelting steel made from metal waste and hot briquetted iron (HBI) contributes to the fullest refining of liquid steel through the phases metal-slag or metal-gas.It has been shown that the content of silicon during electrical steel refining drops to traces. Thus, when using metal waste and pellets as charge in the steel-making process, a silicon oxidation reaction does not reach equilibrium. If a sour process is performed, then the oxidation of silicon reaches equilibrium and, under certain conditions for melting the charge under the influence of heat from an electric arc, there may occur a significant reduction of silicon that takes place at a higher temperature (a silicon-reducing process). The basic process of melting the charge from metal waste and hot briquetted iron in an electric arc furnace has been recommended. In this case, the reducing period of melting is aimed at metal deoxidation, sulphur removal, at bringing the chemical composition of steel to the preset composition, at controlling the process temperature. All these tasks are solved in parallel throughout the entire reduction period. The complete removal of oxidative slag was followed by adding to the furnace of slag-forming mixes together with deoxidizing agents, that is the new slag (carbide or white) was introduced.A rise in the furnace bath temperature decreases the equilibrium constant of manganese. Therefore, in the absence of ferromanganese additives in the bath in the process of melting refinement, the behavior of manganese in the bath can be an indicator for the metal temperature.

Effects of Different Parameters on Initiation and Propagation of Stress Corrosion Cracks in Pipeline Steels: A Review

The demand for pipeline steels has increased in the last several decades since they were able to provide an immune and economical way to carry oil and natural gas over long distances. There are two important damage modes in pipeline steels including stress corrosion cracking (SCC) and hydrogen induced cracking (HIC). The SCC cracks are those cracks which are induced due to the combined effects of a corrosive environment and sustained tensile stress. The present review article is an attempt to highlight important factors affecting the SCC in pipeline steels. Based on a literature survey, it is concluded that many factors, such as microstructure of steel, residual stresses, chemical composition of steel, applied load, alternating current (AC) current and texture, and grain boundary character affect the SCC crack initiation and propagation in pipeline steels. It is also found that crystallographic texture plays a key role in crack propagation. Grain boundaries associated with {111}∥rolling plane, {110}∥rolling plane, coincidence site lattice boundaries and low angle grain boundaries are recognized as crack resistant paths while grains with high angle grain boundaries provide easy path for the SCC intergranular crack propagation. Finally, the SCC resistance in pipeline steels is improved by modifying the microstructure of steel or controlling the texture and grain boundary character.

Modern ideas about pitting corrosion of corrosion-resistant steels and alloys

Purpose. To analyse, systematize and generalize modern representations about a pitting corrosion the alloying steels and alloys in the chloride-contacting environments.Methods of researches. The analysis of literary data according to the work purpose, comparative analysis, method of expert evaluations.Results. In particular, it has been shown that metastable and stable pitings, mainly, originate and develop in the vicinity of inclusions, which are composed of steels and alloys. Their nature and size directly affect the compressive strength of these structural materials. In addition, metastable pitings significantly pour on the intensity of growth of stable due to the redistribution of anode currents between them. At the same time, that they are larger and higher their number on the surface of the steel or alloy, then lower the anode currents in stable sweating and the speed of their growth. It is proved that in pitting metal dissolves selectively. As a result, in their vicinity solid phase diffusion of the main components of the alloy occurs, which leads to enrichment of the surface of metastable pitings with chromium, and stable iron. Because of this, metastable pitings are repatriated, and stable grow as a result of defect formation. Taking into account the characteristic features of selective dissolution of metals in metastable and stable pitings. It is proposed to identify them according to the coefficient of selective dissolution of Cr from pitings. In particular, if it is less than one, then the steel or alloy pits up with the formation of stable pitings, and, if greater, then metastable. It is shown that the chemical composition of steels and alloys also determines their pyrotechnic resis­tance in chloride-containing media. In this case, the most significant effect belongs C r, Mo, N. The positive influence of Cr and Mo on the compressive strength of corrosion-resistant steels and alloys is associated with mixed oxide films, which these chemical elements form on their surface. However, there is evidence that phosphorus contributes to the segregation of Mo and Cr atoms into the oxide film, and thus contributes to the growth of the compressive strength of these structural materials in chloride-contacting environments. At the same time, Cr contributes to increasing the solubility of nitrogen in a solid solution of austenite, which leads to the formation of ammonia complex in pitings, which reduces the pH of the corrosive medium in the pitting, that is why they are repacivated.Scientific novelty. Metastable pittings originate and develop before they are repaciated, when the cathodic reaction near the surface of steels or alloys occurs during oxygen depolarization, and stable – with oxygen and hydrogen on their surface as a result of hydration, dissolved alloy components in corrosion products.Practical value. The enterprises which make the heat-exchanging equipment working in the chloride-contacting reverse waters can choose optimal alloyed steels and alloys for their pitting resistance and to predict their corrosive behavior.

Changes in Mechanical Properties of Ultrahigh Strength Nanostructured Steel Resulting from Repeated High Strain Rate Deformation

The paper contains results of investigation of nanostructured bainitic steel subjected to repeated high-strain-rate deformations using split Hopkinson pressure bar method and uniaxial compression of cylindrical specimens in Gleeble simulator. Steel of chemical composition Fe-0.58%C-1.80%Si-1.95%Mn-1.3Cr-0.7Mo (weight %), after isothermal heat treatment at 210°C, is characterized by following mechanical properties determined at static tensile test: yield strength YS0.2 = 1.3 GPa; ultimate tensile strength UTS = 2.05 GPa; total elongation E = 12%, hardness 610 HV and Charpy-V impact toughness 24 J at +20℃ and 14 J at -40℃. Stress-strain curves obtained for pre-stressed material before the next dynamic compression and after repeated compressions were analysed. Microstructure of the deformed specimens in areas of the dynamic impact was investigated. The effects of the dynamic repeated impact on changes in characteristics of the investigated material, in that on strain hardening mechanism, were established. Critical strains of 5.3% at strain rate 910 s-1 and about 10% at strain rate 50 s-1 for the nanostructured bainite were determined. Exceeding the critical strain under uniaxial repeated high-strain-rate compression, resulted in decreasing of ability of the steel for further plastic deformation and strain hardening.

The Influence of Changing of Treatment Condition on Surface Roughness Parameter During Turning Process by Wiper Insert

Abstract One of the greatest problems of modern production techniques is the achievement of an appropriate quality at minimal costs and accompanied by the production efficiency increase. Therefore, while designing the production process. The technology used should have a considerable influence on the durability and reliability of machine parts to be produced. During finish treatment, the final dimensions as well as functional properties are imparted to a given element by application of proper treatment type. The engineer has a range of production techniques to choose for the proper surface layer formation. It is crucial to find a suitable solution which will meet the requirements as well as the work conditions of a given machine part. The article presents the results of influence of change of cutting parameters on surface roughness parameter during turning process of stainless steel. A shaft made of 304L stainless steel was used for the research. The chemical composition of steel was measured by Solaris-ccd plus optical spectrometer. The cutting process was carried out on a universal CDS 6250 BX-1000 centre lathes. Measurement of surface roughness was carried out by T8000 profilometer. The turning process was conducted by a cutting tool with Wiper insert. During the turning, the following machining parameters were used: cutting speed Vc [m/min], feed f [mm/rev], cutting depth ap [mm] and additionally changed nose radius r [mm], and tool cutting edge angle ᵪr [°]. The results of measurements of Ra parameter underwent statistic analysis. The calculations were conducted by Statistica software.

Evolution behaviour of nonmetallic inclusions in Ti-bearing 11Cr stainless steel with calcium treatment

ABSTRACTNonmetallic inclusions formed during the Ti-stabilized stainless steelmaking process can induce the clogging in the submerged entry nozzle during continuous casting. To investigate the formation mechanism of nonmetallic inclusions in Ti-stabilized stainless steel, steel specimens were taken at different stages in industrial trials. The characteristics of inclusions and the chemical compositions of steel were analysed. After 10 min of Al deoxidation, the main type of inclusions in samples was irregular MgO·Al2O3. With titanium addition after calcium treatment, the irregular dual phase CaO–TiOx–Al2O3–MgO inclusions were formed. The steel compositions of most samples were located in or close to the Al2O3–TiOx liquid oxide phase field. According to experiment and thermodynamic results, the solid CaTiO3 and/or CaO·2Al2O3 inclusions were formed during titanium addition when the molten steel contained more than 20 ppm calcium. The effect of the initial calcium content on the formation of Ca–Al–Ti–O inclusions during titanium addition was discussed.

Basic physical and chemical concepts for controlling δ-ferrite content when welding with austenite-ferrite materials

The paper shows the influence of steel chemical composition on δ-ferrite behavior throughout the entire range of temperature considering welding consumables. Materials for joints are manufactured of the 10Kh19N11M4F, currently used for welding high-strength low-alloy steels. This steel prospects for welding high-nitrogen corrosion-resistant steels saving their non-magnetism, including the zone of welded joint, were analyzed on the basis of these studies. Using thermodynamic modeling, critical parameters were found that determine the behavior of δ-ferrite during solidification and subsequent cooling of solid steel. The most important parameters are the depth of the σ-ferritic transformation and the maximum equilibrium temperature of austenitization, which were used to interpret the experimental data obtained during hot physical modeling of welding. The areas of promising compositions of materials for welding of low-alloyed high-strength and high-nitrogen corrosion-resistant steels without hot cracks and providing, if necessary, the non-magnetic seam were found and depicted on a fragment of an improved Scheffler – Speidel diagram.

Improving the corrosion resistance of steels intended for use in seawater

The results of study of influence of the chemical composition of steel, the structural condition and contamination of nonmetallic inclusions of various types on its corrosion resistance in seawater are presented in the paper. The requirements for increased-corrosion-resistance steel for marine conditions and oilfield pipelines have been compared. It has been shown that a mandatory requirement for ensuring high corrosion resistance of steels is to ensure the purity of steels from unfavorable types of nonmetallic inclusions. It has also been shown that reducing the carbon content and alloying with nickel lead to an increase in the corrosion resistance of steel.

Integrated influence of melting parameters of rail steel on rail products quality and technical and economic indicators of the production

Analysis of literature and production data has shown that despite the significant improvement in quality of domestic rail products, achieved in the last decade due to fundamental technical re-equipment of rail production, there is a problem of increased rejection of rails for surface defects. Based on studies of influence of rail steel chemical composition on quality of rails produced by «EVRAZ ZSMK», there was established a significant effect of increasing copper content in the range of 0.07 - 0.15 % and of sulfur - in the range of 0.006 - 0.011 % in E76KhF steel to increase rejection caused by rail surface defects. Mechanism of the influence of these elements concentration in rail steel on finished rails quality was revealed. Decisive influence of ratio of pig iron and scrap in metal charge on copper and sulfur content in rail steel was evidenced - higher rate of cast iron in metal charge within 20 - 50 % contributes to decrease of copper concentration and increase of sulfur content. To justify optimal composition of the charge for rail steel melting in regard to rail products quality and technical and economic indicators of production, study of the effect of cast iron (liquid and solid) to scrap ratio in metal charge on basic parameters of furnaces’ operation was conducted. As a result, it was found that with an increase in share of both liquid and solid iron in metal charge, there are linear decrease in specific electricity consumption, increase in specific oxygen consumption according to parabolic law and a linear decrease in manganese content in furnace output. The obtained dependences of melting duration on ratio of charge components in metal charge indicates presence of prominent minimum, when using liquid iron in the range of 35 - 40 %, and when using solid iron - in the range of 30 - 35 %. Based on the regression equations, statistical model was constructed for the influence of metal charge composition on technical and economic performance of the melt charge in rail steel smelting, in which optimization parameters are: total cost, depending on the metal stock composition and performance of the shop for suitable billets produced by continuous casting. Application of the obtained model allows to develop reasonable recommendations on the optimal proportion of iron in the metal for current level of prices for materials and energy used in electric smelting, taking into account changes in the shop productivity.

Study of a forecasting possibility of high carbon wire rods quality at production of them at a wire rod mill

The choice of technological parameters of high carbon wire rods production process determines the values of mechanical properties and quality indices. Variations of technological parameters of rolling process and steel chemical composition predetermine considerable dispersion of mechanical characteristics values and quality indices of high carbon wire rods: tensile strength, percent elongation, reduction of area and microstructure. Stabilization of obtained mechanical characteristics values and quality indices during wire rods production was the main task of the study. During the work execution statistical methods of experiment data processing with application of regression analysis methods. Equations for carbon equivalent value determining were elaborated and applied. Regression dependences of quality indices change on the steel chemical composition and the rolling process technological factors plotted, which allow to forecast their values and effective correct the wire rods rolling regimes. General tendencies of the quality indices change, simulated by the obtained regression equations, correlate with industrial data. At the confidence probability of 95%, all the obtained equations of wire rods quality indices interrelation with technological factors of their production are statistically significant. Error of the obtained regression dependences is in the range of 4–11%. Results of the study allow recommending application of those mathematical dependences for a model elaboration, capable of finished products required properties forecasting. When it is necessary to change the regulation level of quality indices, application of obtained mathematical dependences will allow to make corrections on the value range of the wire rods rolling process technological parameters. Forecasting of quality indices values and effective correction of wire rods rolling regimes increase reproducibility stability of mechanical characteristics and wire rods quality indices.

Microstructural and Mechanical Characterization of Autogenous GTAW Weld in High-Manganese Austenitic Steel Ti-Containing with Thermal Analysis

ABSTRACTThe welding heat input has been pointed out as a main limiting factor for TWinnig Induced Plasticity (TWIP) steel weldability. Scarce research works have been focused on the study of application and effects of the Gas Tungsten Arc Welding (GTAW) process in the TWIP steel, especially in higher thickness plate. In this research work was conducted a detailed analysis of a butt weld joint performed in plates of TWIP steel microalloyed with titanium (TWIP-Ti) of 6.3 mm thickness. The autogenous GTAW process with low heat input was applied. The analysis considered grain size measurements, second phases identification, post-weld mechanical properties (microhardness) and the welding thermal field. A Finite Element Model (FEM), validated through experimental results, allowed correlating metallurgical results with the thermal field. Likewise, the phases prediction carried out by means of JMatPro 9.0 software during solidification process as well as the estimation of particle precipitation were in good agreement with the experimental results. These predictive diagrams were calculated taking into account the TWIP-Ti steel chemical composition, the grain size measured in critical weld regions and experimental cooling rates. The low heat input improved the microstructural conditions in the heat affected zone (HAZ) whose average grain size and precipitate particles, like (C, N)Ti, promoted good mechanical properties as compared to the base material (as-solution condition). Some particles like Al2O3 y MnS produced microporosities in the HAZ. Despite this, the weld joint did not present hot cracking in the FZ-HAZ interface.

Use of GDOES method for evaluation of the quality and thickness of hot dip galvanised coating

ABSTRACTThe paper describes an assessment of thickness and quality of hot-dip galvanised coating by means of the glow discharge optical emission spectrometry method (GDOES). For comparison, a metallographic analysis was made using an optical microscope. An important factor influencing thickness and quality of the hot-dip galvanised coating is chemical composition of steel, particularly the amounts of silicon. Structural steels with a low amount of silicon S235JR and S355J2 were chosen for the experiment and high-strength steel S690QL with a high amount of silicon was chosen for comparative purposes. The results of the coating thickness measurement by means of GDOES and optical microscopy show only minimal differences. Steel S690QL shows a thick and uneven zinc coating. In the case of steels S235JR and S355J2 an optimal hot-dip galvanised coating was observed.

Micromechanical Modeling of Dual-Phase DP600 Steel Sheet Plastic Behavior Based on a Representative Volume Element Defined from the Real Microstructure

Dual-phase steels offer very attractive combinations of strength and ductility owing to the coexistence of different microstructures components and their interactions. These steels are suitable to the automotive industry due to their improved impact resistance increasing the passenger safety along with the vehicle weight reduction. The properties of the dual-phase steels are attributed to the chemical composition, type, size, amount and spatial distribution of different phases that can be obtained during thermomechanical treatments, namely, ferrite and martensite. In this work, the microstructure of as-received DP600 cold rolled steel sheet with 1.2 mm nominal thickness was firstly characterized by means of scanning electron microscopy technique. Then, a representative volume element was obtained from the DP600 microstructure and a micromechanical finite element model is proposed considering the steel chemical composition, average ferrite grain size, martensite volume fraction and mechanical properties of both ferrite and martensite phases. The uniaxial tension loading was simulated by assuming either plane-stress and plane-strain conditions. The numerical predictions corresponding to the plane-strain model are in good agreement with the experimental true stress-strain curve determined along the sheet rolling direction. The proposed finite element micromechanical approach based on the real microstructure proved to be an important tool to evaluate both local and overall behaviors of DP600 steel grade.

The effect of structure and elemental composition of the alloy on the results of magnetic control of the stress-strain sate of metal

The effect of changes in the chemical composition and structure of structural steel on the results of magnetic control of the stress-strain state of the metal is studied using data on the field strength of the residual magnetization. It is shown that data of magnetic control reveal changes in the stress-strain state of the metal in the region with significant changes in the structure and chemical composition. This approach is based on the control of the electrical conductivity of the metal, which is highly sensitive to changes in the structure, phase and chemical composition of structural steel. In the field of significant changes in the electrical conductivity of the metal, additional experimental studies should be carried out, including optical metallography and X-ray spectral analysis of metal samples, the results of which are analyzed in combination with the obtained data of magnetic control of the stress-strain state of the metal and thus determine the reason for the origin of the stress state in the local area of the steel product, which is important in the technical examination of steel products and elements of metal structures. It has been shown experimentally that a significant increase in the carbon content in the chemical composition of structural steel changes the electrical and magnetic parameters, but almost does not touch the magnetoelastic sensitivity of the field strength of the residual magnetization of the metal that matches theoretical considerations. We assume that this is also valid for constant and random impurities in the chemical composition of steel, if change in their content does not significantly affect the magnetoelastic sensitivity of the field strength of the residual magnetization of the metal.

RETRACTED ARTICLE: Research on hot-rolling steel products quality control based on BP neural network inverse model

Taking the hot-rolling products made by an iron and steel company as the research object, this paper builds the inverse model reflecting the relationship between the hot-rolling steel product performance indicators, the chemical composition of steel and the rolling technological parameters by using the BP neural network. So the purpose of getting technological parameters is achieved, according to the given steel performance indicators. Combining the BP neural network, adaptive inverse control with internal model control theory, this paper builds the BP neural network inverse model with multiple input and single output based on internal model control. Therefore, it realizes the inverse mapping between the output and the input variables of the BP neural network. And the output variables can be obtained according to the input variables. Besides, this paper also gives the detailed steps to solve the inverse model. Then, the model is applied to the hot-rolling steel products quality control system. The performance indicators of the hot-rolling products are set up, and the rolling technological parameters—the rolling crimp temperature—are solved. The model realizes the controllability of rolling technological parameters. Finally, through the verification of hot-rolling products quality control positive system, the error is in line with the enterprise production requirements.

Electron microscopy and x-ray spectral microanalysis of types and chemical propeties inclusions of the railway axis from a continuous billet

Purpose. Analysis of status and chemical composition of non-metallic inclusions of raw railway truck axle shafts steel using electron microscopy and X-ray spectral microanalysis for the improvement of the throughout technology of the axles production. Methodology. Study of phase composition and type of non-metallic inclusions in axles shaft steel was carried out with modern equipment and method of X-ray spectral microanalysis for quantitative and qualitative data. Findings. The analysis of the elements on chemical composition on EA1N steel and of non-metallic inclusions on physical and mechanical properties of railway axles made by rolling of continuous cast billt of 470 mm diameter. The types and composition of non-metallic inclusions were studied with electron microscopy and X-ray spectral microanalysis. Results can be applied for improvement of steel refining and alloying technology for railway wheel axles production. Originality. There were discovered the original data about the types and chemical compositions of nonmetallic heterophasic inclusions in railway axis metal using the electronic microscopy and X-ray microanalysis. The obtained research results about formations of multiphase inclusions were proved using the phase equilibrium charts consiolering oxide, oxide-sulphide mineral phases. Practical value. The results of electron microscopy and X-ray spectral microanalysis are important to understand and improve the throughput technology of refining and alloying of EA1N steel for railway axle shafts. Keywords: railway axle, railway truck, axle shaft, steel chemical composition, continuous casting billet, mechanical properties, non-metallic inclusions