Steel Drums Research Articles

Moisture ingress in commercial steel drums: Water content determination, diffusion modelling and predicted permeation rates

AbstractCommercial steel drums underpin the global economy, playing a pivotal role in the storage and transportation of critical materials. Transported and stored materials, such as food, chemical and nuclear waste, can be sensitive to ambient conditions, particularly moisture that can enhance negative effects such as corrosion and material degradation. Although international standards and regulations are in place for the qualification of steel drums, there are no current testing requirements, established limits or boundaries for the permeation of moisture into the drums during transportation or storage. This work aims to provide insights into the moisture ingress over time into properly sealed steel drums and provides estimated moisture ingress rates over time through extrapolation. Water vapour transmission rate (WVTR) measurements through the gasket material at 10–40°C were 0.11–2.1 g/m2/day resulting in a permeation activation energy of 30.2 kJ/mol. Water sorption measurements and Karl Fischer titration (KFT) on ethylene propylene diene monomer (EPDM) gasket material revealed a decrease in equilibrium moisture saturation with increasing temperature. KFT measurements also revealed the presence of moisture within the adhesive and drum wall after exposure to ambient conditions. KFT and Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) show that moisture will desorb from the EPDM and drum wall after exposure to desiccating conditions, although a minimal amount of moisture will remain present. When sealed to the manufacturer's recommendations, the steel drums are effective in minimizing moisture ingress. In sealed empty drums, moisture ingress rates for 19‐L drums were 0.4–1.5 mg/day at 25°C 15% relative humidity (RH) and increased to 7.1–8.8 mg/day at 40°C 90% RH, and moisture ingress rates for 210‐L drums were 2.5 and 3.5 mg/day at field deployment conditions of 15.5°C 51.5% RH and 23°C 40% RH, respectively.

Automation of Steel Drums Visual Inspection Using Deep Learning and Image Recognition

Automation of Steel Drums Visual Inspection Using Deep Learning and Image Recognition

THE GIFT OF MUSIC: AN INTERGENERATIONAL CAMPUS-COMMUNITY PARTNERSHIP

Abstract Intergenerational programs bring individuals together across a continuum of age to share experiences. This study was designed to engage university music students with residents at a senior living community. University music student groups performed monthly at a local senior living community and completed pre- and post- performance evaluations to assess performance expectations, level of interest in the performance, perception of factors determining performance success, and perception of performance importance for the senior residents. A total of 24 students participated in one of three musical ensembles (Choir=11; Flutes=5; Steel Drums=8) during the months of February, March, and April 2022. Across all three ensembles, 50% of the students had never performed for residents at a senior living community. On a scale of 1–5, with 1 being “Not at all” and 5 being “Very much”, 21 students indicated a “4” or “5” as to the importance of the performance for the residents whereas 15 students indicated a “4” or “5” in response to the importance of the performance for themselves. Most students reported looking forward to the performance, and following the performance indicated it had been a success. Factors identified as determining performance success included comments such as: “How much the audience enjoyed themselves!” and “Performers and audience enjoyed the performance. We would love to come back!”. Our findings suggest that performing live music in an intergenerational campus-community setting is beneficial not only for students but also for senior living facility residents.

Cellulose degradation products and high ionic strength enhance the retardation of strontium in hydrated cement paste

The present concept for the disposal of some low- and all intermediate-level radioactive waste in the United Kingdom involves grouting with cement in steel drums and placement in a geological facility. The vaults would then be backfilled with low strength, high porosity cement-based materials designed to promote a pervasive, alkaline environment in which many of the radioactive species present are sparingly soluble. This work investigates the interaction of strontium with such a backfill under both diffusive and advective conditions given the potential significance of the fission product 90Sr. An important characteristic of the United Kingdom waste inventory is the abundance of organic compounds, including cellulosic materials; consequently, the experiments were repeated with products of alkaline cellulose degradation. Additional experiments were performed at high ionic strength simulating anticipated changes in the salinity of the groundwater. The effective diffusivity (De) of strontium in the absence of the organic compounds ranged between 5.5 × 10−11 and 8.5 × 10−11 m2 s−1, with a distribution coefficient (Rd) of between 2.8 × 10−3 and 3.1 × 10−3 m3 kg−1. The presence of organic compounds and/or an increase of ionic strength enhanced the retardation of strontium. The results indicate that the retention of strontium by hydrated cement paste occurs via a reversible ion exchange mechanism rather than mineralisation and is promoted by decalcification of the calcium silicate hydrate phases.

Life cycle assessment of environmental impacts of cold and hot break tomato paste packaged in steel drums and exported from Xinjiang, China

The purpose of this study was to conduct a life cycle assessment (LCA) of the environmental impact of highly concentrated tomato paste produced by cold break and hot break methods. We considered the environmental impact and environmental hot spots related to tomato cultivation, tomato paste processing, packaging, and transportation, and then identified potential improvements for each stage. The research site was in Xinjiang, China, which is the main production area of high-concentration tomato paste for export in China. Taking 240 kg tomato paste packed in 220-L steel drums as the functional unit, the main data were obtained from studies on production enterprises and agricultural statistics. Ten environmental impacts were calculated using eFootprint: primary energy demand (PED), resource depletion-water (WU), climate change (GWP), ozone depletion (ODP), acidification (AP), particulate matter (RI), photochemical ozone formation (POFP), eutrophication (EP), ecotoxicity-freshwater (ET), and human toxicity-cancer effects (HT-cancer); their respective values for cold break paste were 5947 MJ, 82400 kg, 490 kg CO2 eq, 4.07E-06 kg CFC-11 eq, 5.150 kg SO2 eq, 1.600 kg PM2.5 eq, 0.270 kg NMVOC eq, 1.000 kg PO43− eq, 4.230 CTUe, and 3.70E-07 CTUh. The results showed that the environmental impact of cold break paste was lower than that of hot break paste because of lower steam consumption. The cultivation phase was the main contributor to WU, AP, EP, ET, and HT-cancer. In the processing phase, mashed tomatoes are concentrated using a large amount of steam to obtain a concentrated paste product. The energy consumption in the processing phase contributed >50% of PED, GWP, and RI. Although the packaging and transportation phases had smaller environmental impacts, the use of steel drums for packaging cannot be ignored. We conducted sensitivity analyses to evaluate the overall benefits that could be achieved by different mitigation schemes. In the whole supply chain, improving irrigation and fertilization methods and replacing the primary energy for steam production are the best strategies to improve environmental sustainability.

Contaminant release, mixing and microbial fluctuations initiated by infiltrating water within a replica field-scale legacy radioactive waste trench

Numerous legacy near-surface radioactive waste sites dating from the mid 20th century have yet to be remediated and present a global contamination concern. Typically, there is insufficient understanding of contaminant release and redistribution, with invasive investigations often impractical due to the risk of disturbing the often significantly radiotoxic contaminants. Consequently, a replica waste trench (~5.4 m3), constructed adjacent to a legacy radioactive waste site (Little Forest Legacy Site, LFLS), was used to assist our understanding of the release and mixing processes of neodymium (Nd) — a chemical analogue for plutonium(III) and americium(III), two significant radionuclides in many contaminated environments. In order to clarify the behaviour of contaminants released from buried objects such as waste containers, a steel drum, representative of the hundreds of buried drums within the LFLS, was placed within the trench. Dissolved neodymium nitrate was introduced as a point-source contaminant to the base of the trench, outside the steel drum. Hydrologic conditions were manipulated to simulate natural rainfall intensities with dissolved lithium bromide added as a tracer. Neodymium was primarily retained both at its point of release at the bottom of the trench (>97 %) as well as at a steel container corrosion point, simulated through the emplacement of steel wool. However, over the 8-month field experiment, advective mixing initiated by surface water intrusions rapidly redistributed a small proportion of Nd to shallower waters (~1.5–1.7 %), as well as throughout the buried steel drum. Suspended particulate forms of Nd (>0.2 μm) were measured at all depths in the suboxic trench and were persistent across the entire study. Analyses of the microbial communities showed that their relative abundances and metabolic functions were strongly influenced by the prevailing geochemical conditions as a result of fluctuating water depths associated with rainfall events. The site representing steel corrosion exhibited divergent biogeochemical results with anomalous changes (sharp decrease) observed in both dissolved contaminant concentration as well as microbial diversity and functionality. This research demonstrates that experimental trenches provide a safe and unique method for simulating the behaviour of subsurface radioactive contaminants with results demonstrating the initial retention, partial shallow water redistribution, and stability of particulate form(s) of this radioactive analogue. These results have relevance for appropriate management and remediation strategies for the adjacent legacy site as well as for similar sites across the globe.

Radioactive Waste Embedding in Cement Matrix and the Establishment of Cemented Waste Testing Laboratory at Paks Nuclear Power Plant

For the treatment of low and intermediate level radioactive wastes generated at the Nuclear Power Plant of Paks, a new compact waste package will be created with a new cementation technology currently under construction. During the operation, the solid waste will be placed in steel drums, which then will be put into a thin-walled steel container. The cavity volume of the containers will be filled with cemented slurry made using liquid radioactive waste. The compact waste packages must comply with the waste acceptance criteria described in the National Radioactive Waste Repository Safety Report. The task of the cemented waste testing laboratory, which is under construction, will be the in-service inspection of the finished cemented material and the determination of properties such as compressive strength and leachability (diffusion coefficient) of the specimens made thereof. During the installation of the laboratory and testing of the devices used in the cement / concrete industry, it turned out that in many cases special moulds are required due to the low viscosity and corrosive properties of the radioactive paste. In addition, the collection of debris generated during the measurement of compressive strength of radioactive cement stone and the minimization of dusting are important requirements.

Oil-recovery performance of a sponge-covered drum skimmer

Oil spill recovery by means of a rotating drum skimmer covered with a sponge layer was investigated experimentally for a wide range of operating conditions. Tests were conducted on two drums of diameters D = 300 mm and D = 200 mm and lengths L = 300 mm and L = 455 mm, respectively. The examined operating conditions encompassed oil viscosity, rotational speed, slick thickness and centre height above the oil/water interface. The results indicate the superiority of the sponge covered surface in oil recovery over the standard steel surface regardless of the viscosity of oil collected. The sponge-covered drum collected 24% more oil than the plain steel drum, when both were operated under the same conditions. The porous cover improves the skimmer performance due to its ability to absorb oil. The increase in oil slick thickness from 10 to 25 mm led to enhanced recovery rate by 59% in case of sponge-covered drum compared to17.5% with plain steel drum. The study paves the way to applying different types of porous sorbent materials to cover the oleophilic skimmers to achieve higher efficiency and oil recovery rate.

Design and Control Scheme of the Mooring System

In this paper, by analyzing the design and control scheme of the mooring system based on theoretical mechanics, force analysis is conducted on the buoy, steel pipe, steel drum, and anchor chain, and a reasonable mathematical model is constructed to solve the problems of the inclination angle of the steel drum and each section of the steel pipe, the shape of the anchor chain, the draft of the buoy, and the swimming area under different wind speeds, thus providing a reliable basis for the design of the system.

Safety verification tests of low and intermediate level radioactive solid waste drum

Steel drums or boxes are used to transport, store, and dispose of low- and intermediate-level waste. According to relevant standards, before the solid waste container design is finalized, a series of type tests should be performed, including leakage test, water spray test, stacking test, penetration test, free-drop test, etc. This article focuses on the acceptance test and test methods for the LID- II b type waste drum finalization test. The tests in accordance with the standard requirements are the first time reported in China. It found the inherent design defects, and had high guiding significance to improve design and test verification operation.

Performance analysis and life cycle assessment of acrylic concrete structures for rainwater harvesting

This study investigates the viability of acrylic concrete (AC) tanks as an alternative rainwater harvesting (RWH) material through structural, water quality, and global warming impact data – focusing on material reuse and availability for sustainable communities. The mechanical testing evaluated the flexural strength of AC mixtures made with varying dosages of acrylic paint, Portland cement, and sand. The results identified mechanically viable AC mixtures and the largest flexural strength value was observed in the mixture with 20% Portland cement and 80% acrylic paint by weight at 28-days with a modulus of rupture of 266 psi. The water quality tests measured the water quality of tanks built with AC mixtures and the results identified the presence of total and fecal coliforms, bis(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate, and benzoic acid. Measured inorganic compounds were below the World Health Organization guidelines for drinking water. The life cycle assessment of different AC mixtures as compared to other common RWH tank materials indicated that the AC RWH tank performs the best when acrylic paint is treated as a waste product (73 kg CO2e/m3) while RWH systems made of steel drums show the highest global warming impact (827 kg CO2e/m3) compared to high-density polyethylene drums (79 kg CO2e/m3). These results suggest the viability of AC mixtures in water infrastructure such as RWH tanks to conserve resources and reduce pollution. The study concludes with takeaway benefits and constraints regarding the use of AC RWH tanks.

Converter sludge drying in rotating drum using hot steel balls

Converter sludge is a by-product of converter steelmaking and a secondary resource of recovery; however, it needs to be dried before recovery. Obtaining the expected results using traditional sludge drying technologies is difficult due to the special properties of converter sludge. In this research, we proposed a new rotating-drum-drying technology using hot steel balls. Steel balls are heated by the waste heat of metallurgical slag. This technology has the advantages of low cost, high efficiency and thorough drying, and can overcome the shortcomings of traditional technologies. This research explored the converter sludge drying in a drum through experiments. The effect of four operating parameters on the drying process was investigated, and the suitable model for the drying process was discussed. The operating parameters include sludge treatment mass (3.0/4.0/5.0/6.7/9.0 kg), steel ball (initial) temperature (300/500 °C), steel ball diameter (20/30/40 mm) and drum rotating speed (1/3/5/7 rpm). Results show that this proposed technology is feasible and efficient. Sludge drying can be accelerated by appropriately reducing the sludge treatment mass, increasing the steel ball temperature, increasing the steel ball diameter, and selecting an appropriate drum rotating speed. The Weibull model can better predict the drying process by comparing multiple models. The operating parameters have obvious relationships with the fitting parameters of the Weibull model.

Field Testing of a Putative Larviposition Pheromone for the Tsetse Fly Glossina m. morsitans Westwood

Under laboratory conditions, the alkane hydrocarbon n-pentadecane attracts gravid female tsetse (Glossina morsitans morsitans Westwood) to potential larviposition sites. We describe field-testing of this chemical, which is the first such test for any putative tsetse larviposition pheromone. We replicated randomised block experiments at 11 sites near Rekomitjie Research Station, Zambezi Valley, Zimbabwe. Each site comprised a cluster of four artificial warthog burrows constructed from 200-litre steel drums. We placed six trays, filled with sand and covered with leaf litter, inside each burrow. Both species of tsetse inhabiting this region entered these artificial burrows and deposited 1282 pupae in the trays during the experiments. In 13 experiments, n-pentadecane was tested at three different concentrations against a control. We were unable to find any conclusive evidence that the presence of n-pentadecane resulted in an increased larviposition rate for either G. m. morsitans or G. pallidipes. This finding was independent of the concentration of n-pentadecane used, and was not influenced by the presence or absence of added water, acetone or warthog urine. Any small effect of the pheromone is likely masked by the important physical characteristics of burrow larviposition sites. Order of magnitude increases in larviposition rates when leaf litter was added to larviposition sites were far greater than those due to the use of putative larviposition pheromones.

DEVELOPING THE MATERIAL-SERVICE SYSTEM CONCEPT: A CASE STUDY OF STEEL INDUSTRIAL DRUMS

AbstractWithin the circular economy, the Product-Service System (PSS) is a key business model to slow down and dematerialise resource consumption between manufacturers or service providers and customers. Material-Service Systems (MSSs) have been proposed as a business model to develop the performance economy focusing on the relationship between material suppliers and manufacturers. The aim of this research is to introduce and develop the MSS concept and to apply it to a real-world case study. The research involved two stages. First, a modelling method is proposed to represent the flow, transformation and ownership of resources by the stakeholders in a supply chain. Second, the method is tested using steel industrial drums as a case. The results indicate that the MSS has the potential to radically transform the steel drums industry and it could work effectively with a PSS within a reuse system to recondition and reintroduce obsolete drums into the market.

Prevalence of Insects in Traditionally Stored Rice at Farmhouses in Bangladesh

A survey was conducted to investigate rice storage practices at the farmer’s level and the prevalence of insects’ status through a pretested questionnaire in Mymensingh and Jashore districts, Bangladesh. For seed purposes, large, medium, and small farmers store about 40, 10, and 5 kg, respectively in the Aman season for 7 months whereas in the Boro season large and medium farmers keep about 80 and 20 kg for 5 months. Average storage time was the highest (7 months) for Boro and Aman rice by large and small farmers, respectively for consumption. Eleven storage items namely, Dole, Motka, Tin, Plastic Drum, Gunny Bag, Bamboo Gola, Dhari, Bamboo Auri, Berh, Steel Drum, and Plastic Bag were found. About 57 and 74% of farmers stored rice, among them 47 and 58% used traditional Dole in Jashore and Mymensingh, respectively. Tin and Berh (1%) were the least used storage structures. About 11 and 17%; 3 and 4% of farmers used neem leaf and chemicals especially phostoxin in storage as an insect repellent in these areas, respectively. The use of Plastic Bags increased sharply due to lightweight, availability, and low price, whereas Bamboo Gola, Berh, Motka users decreased remarkably. Relative abundance of the insect species was: Rice Moth Sitotroga cerealla, Rice Weevil Sitophilus oryzae, Red Flour Beetle Tribolium castoreum, and Lesser Meal Worm Alphitobious diaperinus. Maximum insect infestation was found in stored paddy in Dole followed by Motka, and Plastic Bag; and the least amount was observed in Plastic Drum in both regions. Three fourth of the respondents took no measures to control insect pests in stored rice.

Constructing a geophysical test site for a coastal community's research and education activities

A geophysical test site (GTS) contains subsurface targets of known materials, orientations, and depths. GTSs offer unique opportunities for geophysical research, training, and educational activities. They provide platforms to investigate the penetration and resolution of different geophysical techniques for characterizing the shallow subsurface. GTS-based field exercises represent an interesting, motivating, rewarding, and enjoyable experience for students and instructors. We have constructed a GTS at Texas A&M University-Corpus Christi that contains several objects (e.g., steel drums, plastic drums, plastic buckets, steel pipes, and well covers) buried at depths ranging from 0.5 to 3 m to simulate real-life situations. In this article, we provide a thorough description of the site location, subsurface geology, surface topography, and construction methodology, as well as the types, locations, orientations, and depths of the subsurface targets. Research and education significance and implications of the GTS are also described. This article could serve as a reference for the construction of new GTSs worldwide.

Biochar—just a black matter is not enough

What differs biochar from charcoal? The simple answer is that biochar is a carbon-rich product obtained from the thermal decomposition of organic material, at the presence of no or only a bit of oxygen. In principle, the production of biochar is comparable to the production of charcoal, one of the oldest and most established processes developed by mankind. While charcoal is made traditionally from wood, biochar can be based on a wide range of biomass and biomass residues. However, a variety of technologies for the production of biochar has been developed in recent years. The technologies are based on pyrolysis, gasification, or hydrothermal carbonization and are ranging from simple units, like heated steel drums to full automated and controlled processes. Therefore, the obtained products have tremendous differences in its properties and resulting qualities. The quality defines the field of application. To obtain the required quality for each application, the right process must be applied. Consequently, it is not enough only to enrich the carbon content by thermal decomposition of organic material. The production of tailor-made biochar for specific high added–value application is much more complex. In addition, side products like liquid biofuels make business cases stronger. If it is done in the right way, biochar production combined with advanced biofuels can be an economic solution to overcome the problems of climate change. “So for the future of mankind, this black matter might give the light at the end of the tunnel.”

Modified biogas digester tank for production of gas from decomposable organic wastes

This research output is focused on the modified design of a low-cost biodigester using a 295L of steel drum. The system has a 15kg bio-methane storage tank of 182L with a water displacement tank of 20L standard steel drum. Incorporated into the design is a cast iron with centrally positioned four impeller shaft to enhance mixing of substrate. A floating storage tank was designed, fabricated, and used for effective storage of bio-methane; biogas was produced from mixture of cowdungs, which was filtered to remove substituent of biogas. The retention time was for 4 weeks during which the pH valve and temperature variation were noted. Maximum biogas production was attained on the 8th, 9th, and 19th day, and the total volume of gas produced ranges between 92.6 and 102 mL/day. The test result showed that methane gas produced the highest percentage of biogas. Additionally, from the result, the displacement of ethane, ethylene, propane, propylene, I-butane, nitrogen, carbon monoxide, carbondioxide and other gases were minimal compared to methane gas.

Efficient solid-state fermentation for the production of 5-aminolevulinic acid enriched feed using recombinant Saccharomyces cerevisiae

Over the past decade, 5-aminolevulinic acid (5-ALA) has been highlighted as a promising functional feed additive and immunomodulator for improving the general health, immune response, and resistance to disease of livestock and poultry. However, it is very costly to produce 5-ALA using conventional chemical synthesis methods. Classical microbial fermentation fulfills the criteria of environmental friendliness, but the unsatisfactory titers still hinder actual industrial production. This study aimed to develop a solid-state fermentation (SSF) process that can be used to efficiently enrich feed with 5-ALA at a low cost. First, the endogenous 5-ALA synthase was overexpressed in Saccharomyces cerevisiae via integrating a copy of HEM1 gene into the chromosome and introducing a multi-copy plasmid pRS416-HEM1 which constitutively overexpresses HEM1 gene. The resulting strain ScA3 was able to produce 63.82 mg/L 5-ALA in shake-flask fermentation. After process optimization, a titer of 225.63 mg/kg dry materials, exceeding the usual effective dosage reported in animal trials, was achieved within 48 h through SSF of 20 kg feed in a 90-L steel drum. To our knowledge, this is the first report on combining microbial 5-ALA production with SSF in feed processing, which will hopefully promote the application and popularization of 5-ALA in the feed industry.

Collection activity channels selection in a reverse supply chain under a carbon cap-and-trade regulation

Manufacturers face challenges while collecting used products in their reverse supply chain from several scattered geographic regions. These regions are different in terms of quality of used products returned, quantity returned, the timing of the returns, and regions’ distance from the central remanufacturing facility. The paper proposes a mixed-integer linear programming model for such manufacturer to decide on an optimal combination of channels for collecting used products from these regions in a finite multi-period situation. In each region the manufacturer has two potential sources of collection activity for the manufacturer are −1) through a regional independent collection firm, and 2) direct collection from regional customers. The decision problem is considered under constrains of the quantity and quality of returned products, carbon emission cap-and-trade regulation. A numerical analysis using parameter value estimated using field studies in India for steel drums is presented. The results of the analysis suggest that manufacturers and carbon policymakers should consider the quantity of returned product over the product life cycle. Further, the target for long term carbon emission reduction has implication to a manufacturer’s channels selection for collection activity from multiple regions. Results of analysis also indicate the effect of timing for carbon-cap-and-trade policy implementation on the selection of channels for collection activity in a multi-region problem.