Steam Flaking Research Articles

Effect of Steam Flaking of Corn and Sorghum Grains on Performance of Lactating Cows

The objective of this study was to compare the relative feeding value of sorghum versus corn grain in rolled or steam-flaked forms in diets for lactating dairy cows. Twenty-four Holstein cows (averaging 110 DIM) were divided into four groups and fed diets of 40% grain as dry-rolled sorghum, steam-rolled corn, steam-flaked sorghum, or steam-flaked corn for 70 d. Compared with rolling, flaking of both grains increased yields of milk, milk protein and fat, and protein percentage of milk, but differences tended to be greater for sorghum than for corn. Efficiency of feed utilization was higher for steam-flaked than for dry-rolled sorghum but was unaffected by corn processing. Flaking of both grains increased total tract digestibilities of DM, OM, CP, starch, ADF, and NDF. Estimates for NEL were 21% higher for flaked than for rolled sorghum and 6% higher for flaked than for rolled corn. No differences in performance of cows existed between corn and sorghum grains. Cows fed 40% of their diet as steam-flaked sorghum or corn yielded more milk and milk protein than those fed the rolled form of the grains, and no differences existed between types of grain fed.

Dry matter disappearance and gelatinization of grains as influenced by processing and conditioning

Four ruminally cannulated steers (average body weight 430 kg) were used in a 4 × 4 split plot. Latin square design, in situ experiment to evaluate grain processing methods and effects of grain conditioner on dry matter (DM) disappearance (DMI) and degree of gelatinization of four grains. Effects of grinding or steam flaking, with and without the addition of a commercial grain conditioner, on DMD of corn ( Zea mays), barley ( Hordeum vulgare), wheat ( Triticum vulgare) and sorghum ( Sorghum vulgare) were measured at incubation times of 0, 6, 12, 24, 36 and 48 h. Degree of gelatinization of grains was determined by polarized light microscopy as loss of birefringence. Ground grams had greater DMD than flaked grains at 0 h (sorghum, P < 0.05), 24 h (wheat, P < 0.01), 24 h (barley, P < 0.05) and 36 h (wheat, P < 0.01); however, steam flaking increased DMD at 36 h (corn, sorghum, P < 0.01) and 48 h (sorghum, P < 0.01) compared with grinding. In situ DMD was greater ( P < 0.05) for ground, ground + conditioned and steam-flaked barley than for steam-flaked + conditioned barley at 24 h. Ground wheat had the greatest ( P < 0.10) DMD among ground grains at 12 and 24 h; likewise, ground + conditioned wheat had the greatest ( P < 0.10) DMD among ground + conditioned grains. A trend for increased DMD of wheat was observed across time, and among processing and conditioning methods, compared with other grains. Degree of gelatinization was greater for steam-flaked than for ground grains. Corn, wheat and barley reached gelatinization at lower temperatures than sorghum. These data suggest that effects of processing and conditioning varied among grains and within grains across time. Use of a commercial grain conditioner did not consistently alter DMD of grains.

Influence of Sorghum Grain Processing on Performance of Lactating Dairy Cows

Thirty-six lactating Holstein cows (80 DIM) were divided into four groups to compare steam-rolled corn with a density of 489g/L, steam-flaked sorghum grain (360g/L), dry-rolled sorghum grain (643g/L), and an equal mixture of dry-rolled and steam-flaked sorghum grain. Each grain treatment constituted 42% of the TMR. A 14-d pretreatment period was used to allot cows to treatment and to adjust treatment means by covariance analysis. Treatment was for 80 d and included a 14-d digestibility trial using Cr203 as a marker. Intake of DM was higher for mixed than for flaked sorghum. Milk yield, FCM yield, and milk fat percentage were not altered by treatment, but cows fed steam-flaked sorghum had higher percentages of protein, lactose, and SNF in milk and greater milk protein yield than those fed dry-rolled sorghum. Percentages of milk lactose and SNF were greater for cows fed flaked sorghum than for those fed steam-rolled corn or the sorghum mixture. Digestibility of OM was higher for flaked sorghum than for steam-rolled corn or rolled sorghum, and digestibilities of CP and NDF were highest for dry-rolled sorghum. Total tract starch digestibility was lowest for cows fed dry-rolled sorghum (70%), highest (92%) for those fed steam-flaked sorghum, and intermediate (82%) for those fed rolled corn and the sorghum mix. Milk yield for cows fed steam-flaked sorghum grain was equal to or superior to that of cows fed steam-rolled corn. Steam flaking of sorghum grain markedly increased starch digestibility and percentage milk protein compared with dry rolling.

Effect of extrusion and steam flaking of cereals on growth rate and feed utilisation by weaned pigs

Heat treated cereals whether steamed and flaked or extruded are widely used in pig starter diets despite the dearth of experimental information to support the view that cooking of cereals improves their utilisation by young pigs or improves growth performance of weaned pigs.McCone et al. (1991) showed that micronisation and flaking of cereals had no beneficial effect on pig performance. The objective in the present trial was to evaluate extruded and steamed-flaked wheat and steamed-flaked maize in diets for pigs immediately after weaning.

The effect of thermal inactivation of lipoxygenase on the stability of vitamin E in wheat

Less than 10% of the vitamin E in wholemeal and white wheat flours was retained after drum-drying. This extensive destruction of vitamin E may be due to lipid degradation. It is known that tocopherols are oxidized by the co-oxidation reaction of lipoxygenase. The study showed that the loss of vitamin E started immediately on mixing the flour with water, which is the first stage in the drum-drying process. The loss increased as the storage time of the flours increased. It also increased as the temperature of the flour-water slurry increased, even though lipoxygenase activity was inactivated in the hot slurries. When lipoxygenase was heat-inactivated by low moisture processes, such as steam flaking and microwave-treatment, vitamin E retention was improved. To what extent the vitamin E losses can be ascribed to enzymic or non-enzymic oxidation is not known. Both mechanisms seems to be important. Non-enzymic lipid oxidation was favoured by a two- to five-fold increase in pro-oxidative substances, such as iron and copper, during the drum-drying process.

Influence of steam flaking wheat on rumen fermentations and duodenal nitrogen and amino acid flows in heifers

Six Friesian heifers of 491 kg body weight and fitted with permanent ruminal and duodenal cannulae were used in a cross-over design to study the effect of steam flaking of wheat on ruminal fermentations and amino acid flow at the duodenum. Dry-rolled wheat (DRW) and steam-flaked wheat (SFW) were fed in diets composed of 74% wheat and 20% wheat straw supplemented with urea, vitamins and minerals. Chromium oxide, polyethylene glycol and diaminopimelic acid were used as particulate, liquid and bacterial markers, respectively. Non-ammonia nitrogen flow to the duodenum (110.3 and 98.4 g day −1) was higher ( P < 0.05) for SFW compared with DRW. Duodenal flow of essential, non-essential and total amino acids was 249 and 220, 345 and 293, and 594 and 513 g day −1 for SFW and DRW, respectively, with SFW higher ( P < 0.05) than DRW.

The effect of two heat treatments (steam flaking and extrusion) on the digestion of Pisum sativum in the stomachs of heifers

Six Friesian heifers weighing 546 kg body weight and fitted with permanent ruminal and duodenal cannulae were used in a cross-over design to study the effect of steam flaking and extrusion of peas ( Pisum sativum) on ruminal fermentation, and starch, nitrogen and amino acid flow to the duodenum. Ground (GP), steam-flaked (SFP) and extruded peas (EXP) were fed in diets composed of 39% peas, 32% dried sugar beet pulp and 25% wheat straw supplemented with vitamins and minerals. Chromic oxide, polyethylene glycol and diaminopimelic acid were used as particulate, liquid and bacterial markers, respectively. Steam flaking did not significantly affect any of the parameters studied in vivo. Extrusion of pea decreased N solubility and gelatinized starch without a negative effect on N pepsin solubility and lysine bioavailability. The total volatile fatty acid concentration was higher for EXP than for GP (98.5 and 87.3 mM l −1; P<0.05) and ruminal ammonia was lower (9.8 vs. 15.5 mg per 100 ml; P<0.001). The duodenal flow of starch was not significantly affected by processing. Extrusion was associated with higher feed N (81 vs. 68 g day −1; P>0.05), bacterial N (104 vs. 68 g day −1; P<0.01), non-ammonia N (185 vs. 136 g day −1; P<0.001) and flow of all amino acids to the duodenum ( P<0.01).

Influence of steaming time on site of digestion of flaked corn in steers.

Four crossbred steers (395 kg) with cannulas in the rumen, proximal duodenum and distal ileum were used to evaluate effects of steaming time of corn on characteristics of digestion. The basal diet contained (DM basis) 12% forage-and 75% corn. The corn portion of the diet was provided as either dry-rolled (DR) or steam-flaked (SF), which had been exposed to steam for 34, 47 or 67 min prior to flaking to a mean density of .34 kg/liter. Longer steaming times linearly increased in vitro reactivity of corn starch to amyloglucosidase. Steaming time had a quadratic effect (P less than .05) on ruminal starch digestion. Ruminal starch digestibility of corn steamed for 47 min was 7% less than for corn steamed for 34 or 67 min. Longer steaming time linearly increased (P less than .05) flow of non-ammonia N to the small intestine with the principal increase (5.4%) between 34 and 47 min steaming time. Steaming time did not influence (P greater than .10) small intestinal or total tract digestibility of OM, starch or N. Compared with DR, SF increased (P less than .01) ruminal, small intestinal and total tract digestibility of starch 21.9, 75.1 and 9.2%, respectively. Although SF resulted in marked improvements in digestibility over DR, steaming times greater than 34 min were not beneficial.

The effects of various thermal processes on protein quality, vitamins and selenium content in whole-grain wheat and white flour

Whole-grain wheat and white flour from wheat were subjected to various thermal processes - steam flaking, autoclaving, popping, extrusion cooking, and drum-drying - under both mild and severe conditions. The effects of processing on protein quality were evaluated (by comparing biological and chemical methods), and on retention of vitamins (vitamin E, thiamin and folacin) and selenium. Protein quality was affected most by popping and autoclaving. Changes in biological value correlated significantly (P < 0·001) with available lysine measured according to both the fluorodinitrobenzene (FDNB) and the dye-binding procedure. Popping and autoclaving under mild and severe conditions also resulted in the greatest losses of thiamin and folacin. Vitamin E activity, however, was affected most in white flour after extrusion cooking and drum-drying, which destroyed the major part of the vitamin E activity. Selenium retention was practically unaffected by the various thermal processes, except by drum-drying, which caused a 24% loss. No thermal process equally preserved protein quality and process-sensitive vitamins. However, the low-temperature processes, like steam flaking and drum-drying or the high temperature-short time process extrusion cooking, generally, with the exception of Vitamin E, retained the nutrient quality better than popping and autoclaving.

EFFECTS OF BARLEY VOLUME-WEIGHT AND PROCESSING METHOD ON FEEDLOT PERFORMANCE OF FINISHING STEERS

Barley of three different volume-weights (VW) (light, 47.8; medium, 55.6; heavy, 66.6 kg hL−1) was subjected to two processing treatments (DR, dry rolled; SF, steam flaked) and fed to 192 yearling steers (avg. body weight 332 kg) at a level of 85% of the dietary dry matter (DM) in combination with barley silage (10.75% of DM) and mineral-vitamin premix (4.25% of DM) during the finishing period. No significant two- and three-way interactions were observed for any of the traits studied. Average daily gain (ADG) of cattle fed SF and DR diets was similar (P &gt; 0.05) except during the first 27 d of the trial in which the SF steers gained 9.4% faster (P &lt; 0.05) than the DR steers. Dry matter intake (DMI) of steers fed SF barley tended to be higher (P &lt; 0.10) in period one and in period three than for those fed DR barley but was similar for both processing groups in periods two and four and overall. Dry matter consumed per unit of liveweight gain (DM/G) was similar for the two processing treatments during all periods and overall although it tended (P &lt; 0.10) to be lower for the DR steers during period two. Volume-weight had no effect (P &gt; 0.05) on ADG or DMI. Overall, DM/G decreased (P &lt; 0.01) an average 1.2% for each unit (kg hL−1 increase in VW from 47.8 to 55.6 kg hL−1. DM/G was similar for cattle fed medium and heavy barley. Large steers (avg. bodyweight 350 kg) gained 17.5% faster (P &lt; 0.01), consumed 12% more (P &lt; 0.01) dry matter and required 4.9% less (P &lt; 0.01) DM per unit of gain than small steers (avg. bodyweight 314 kg). Steam flaking of the barley produced carcasses with 0.14 cm more (P &lt; 0.05) grade fat and resulted in 31% fewer (P &lt; 0.05) liver condemnations due to abscesses than dry rolling but did not influence the other carcass quality perameters. Medium VW barley resulted in lower (P &lt; 0.05) grade fat than either light or heavy barley, which produced similar grade fat measurements. Large steers, marketed at an average liveweight that was 14.5 kg heavier (P &lt; 0.01) than the small steers, had lower (P &lt; 0.05) marbling scores than the small steers. Key words: Barley, volume-weight, steers, processing, dry rolling, steam flaking

The effects of various thermal processes on dietary fibre and starch content of whole grain wheat and white flour

The content of dietary fibre (DF) and starch in raw and processed materials obtained from wheat was evaluated. The processes studied were extrusion cooking, drum-drying, autoclaving, popping and steam flaking. The processing conditions were chosen to represent the limits that could be used commercially. The DF content was detennined using an enzymic-gravimetric method for soluble and insoluble DF components and a gas-liquid chromatographic method for complete characterisation of the constituent monosaccharides. Values for the total DF obtained by the two methods for a range of samples were closely correlated ( r = 0⁗99; P

Effect of Mixing Whole Shelled and Steam Flaked Corn in Finishing Diets on Feedlot Performance and Site and Extent of Digestion in Beef Steers

Beef steers were fed 85% concentrate diets in which the corn portion was comprised of mixtures of whole shelled (W) and steam flaked (SF) corn in the following ratios (as fed basis): 100W:OSF, 75W:25SF, 50W:50SF, 25W:75SF and OW:100SF. In Exp. 1 (150 Hereford steers, 152 d on feed), cattle fed the 75W:25SF and 25W:75SF gained faster (P<.05) than those fed the OW:100SF diet, while remaining treatments resulted in intermediate gains. Feed efficiency was not different among treatments but tended to be better for the 25W:75SF treatment. Fecal pH was generally lower and fecal starch content higher as W corn increased in the diet, but variation was evident throughout the feeding period. In Exp. 2 (230 mixed breed steers, 191 d on feed), cattle fed the 25W:75SF and OW:100SF diets gained faster (P<.05) than those fed the 100W:OSF and 75W:25SF diets. Gains on the 50W:50SF diet were different (P<.05) from those on the 100W:OSF diet. Although not significant, feed efficiency was improved with the 25W:75SF and OW:100SF diets compared with other diets. No significant differences were observed in carcass characteristics in either experiment. Exp. 3 was a 5 × 5 Latin square design digestion trial with rumen-cannulated steers. Ruminal dry matter and organic matter digestion (lignin ratio) were higher (P<.05) for the OW:100SF diet than for the 100W:OSF, 75W:25SF and 50W:50SF diets but not different from the 25W:75SF diet. Ruminal starch digestion was also higher (P<.05) for the OW:100SF diet than for the 100W:OSF and 75W:25SF diets, but not different from other diets. Total tract dry matter, organic matter and starch digestion (Cr2O3 or lignin ratio) generally increased with increased proportions of SF corn in the diet. Total volatile fatty acids (mmol/liter) were higher (P<.05) for the 25W:75SF diet than for other diets. Rumen pH at 3 h postfeeding was lower (P<.05) with OW:100SF and 25W:75SF than with 100W:OSF and 75W:25SF diets. Results suggest W corn can be partially substituted for SF corn in beef cattle finishing diets.

Microbial protein synthesis in steers fed processed corn rations.

Four ruminally and abomasally cannulated Hereford steers were fed corn processed by one of four methods − dry rolling (DR), steam flaking (SF), propionic acid treated ensiled high moisture whole shelled (AHM) or ensiled ground high moisture shelled corn (GHM). The rations contained 43.8, 36.5, 59.3 and 96.9% of nitrogen as soluble nitrogen with DR, SF, AHM and GHM. Nitrogen intakes were 85.2, 76.1, 85.2 and 82.4 g/day while the abomasal nitrogen inflow was 77.1, 87.1, 85.2 and 105.3 g/day on the same treatments, respectively, indicating greatest recycling occurred with SF and AHM rations. Microbial nitrogen represented a greater percent (P<.10) of the abomasal nitrogen for the GHM ration than the AHM ration. But the microbial protein produced per 100 g dry matter digested (DMD) in the rumen indicated that energy from AHM was (P<.10) used most efficiently. A significant (P<.01) linear regression was observed between microbial protein synthesis/100 g rumen DMD and dilution rate per hour, indicating that turnover rate of rumen contents is an important factor in efficiency of microbial protein synthesis.

Digestibility of Milo Processed by Different Methods

Two trials were conducted with yearling steers to determine digestibility of rations containing 77% milo processed by various methods. In trial 1, the processing methods were: dry rolled, steam processed flaked, steam processed cut, and water soaked cut. The digestibility of the nitrogen free extract fraction of the rations containing steam processed flaked milo was significantly (P<.05) greater than for the other three treatments which were not significantly different from each other. The total digestible nutrients of the rations was increased significantly (P<.05)by the steam processed flaked milo compared to the other three treatments; however, the total digestible nutrients of the water soaked milo ration was significantly (P<.05) higher than for the dry rolled treatment. The estimated total digestible nutrients of the steam processed flaked milo was 89.8% as compared to 72.1% for dry rolled milo. In trial 2 the processing methods were: dry rolled, fine ground, steam processed flaked, and pressure cooked flaked (2.81 kg./cm.2 for 1 min.). The digestibility of the nitrogen free extract of the ration containing the steam processed and pressure cooked flaked milo was significantly (P<.05) greater than for the rations containing the dry rolled or fine ground milo. The total digestible nutrients of the rations containing the two moist heat treated milos was significantly greater than for the two dry processed. The estimated total digestible nutrients of the steam processed flaked, pressure cooked flaked, fine ground and dry rolled milos were: 88.3, 86.8, 81.1 and 79.7%, respectively. The results indicated that the digestibility and total digestible nutrients of milo can be markedly improved by either steam processing and flaking or pressure cooking and flaking

Effect of Steam Processing and Flaking Milo and Barley on Performance and Digestion by Steers

Effect of Steam Processing and Flaking Milo and Barley on Performance and Digestion by Steers