Steady-state Scenarios Research Articles

Topology optimization and numerical validation for heat transfer improvement in a packed-bed reactor with monolithic catalyst

This study focuses on optimizing heat transfer in packed-bed reactors by simplifying the problem to a two-dimensional steady-state heat conduction scenario. The objective is to efficiently arrange a limited volume of high-conductivity material to transport heat from the source to the low-conductivity heat-absorbing materials, representing the reacting fluid phase. The topology optimization problem is tackled using a density-based method that relies on a gradient-based algorithm. The optimized design is extruded and compared to a honeycomb internal structure using high-fidelity simulations for steam methane reforming. Results show a 6.04 % improvement in CH4 conversion for the optimized structure, highlighting the potential of this method to enhance monolithic catalysts, particularly in cases where heat transfer critically influences the reaction.

Experimental Investigation of Energy Consumption in Select Micromobility Vehicles

<div>This study provides a detailed energy consumption analysis of two popular micromobility vehicles—an e-scooter and an e-bike—under various conditions, including steady-state and dynamics scenarios. Employing a custom-built data acquisition system, the research tested these vehicles in throttle mode, additionally assessing the e-bike across three pedal-assist levels. The findings reveal that the e-bike operates significantly more efficiently than the e-scooter, with both vehicles demonstrating peak power outputs significantly exceeding their rated values. Furthermore, the study explores how cargo affects the e-bike’s energy use, along with the charging and discharging behaviors of both platforms. Notably, the e-scooter exhibited a considerable battery self-depletion rate, a characteristic not observed on the e-bike.</div>

First integrated core-edge fluid simulation of ITER’s Limiter–Divertor transition with SolEdge-HDG

This work explores the Limiter–Divertor transition (L–D) during the current ramp-up of ITER’s Q = 10 baseline plasma scenario at various central line-integrated density nli values. The analysis, based on transport simulations performed with the latest version of SoleEdge-HDG, focuses on the time evolution of heat and ion particle fluxes, revealing regions of elevated temperature on the inner wall and plasma-facing components (PFCs) despite moderate loads. The investigation also delves into the effects of perpendicular convection flux terms on density build-up, comparing different formulations and their interplay with auxiliary heating sources. Furthermore, the paper shows the impact of taking into account the evolution of the parallel neutral momentum on plasma and neutral density at the targets in the context of an ITER steady-state scenario.

A Framework for Multi-Physics Modeling, Design Optimization and Uncertainty Quantification of Fast-Spectrum Liquid-Fueled Molten-Salt Reactors

The analysis of liquid-fueled molten-salt reactors (LFMSRs) during steady state, operational transients and accident scenarios requires addressing unique reactor multi-physics challenges with coupling between thermal hydraulics, neutronics, inventory control and species distribution phenomena. This work utilizes the General Nuclear Field Operation and Manipulation (GeN-Foam) code to perform coupled thermal-hydraulics and neutronics calculations of an LFMSR design. A framework is proposed as part of this study to perform modeling, design optimization, and uncertainty quantification. The framework aims to establish a protocol for the studies and analyses of LFMSR which can later be expanded to other advanced reactor concepts too. The Design Analysis Kit for Optimization and Terascale Applications (DAKOTA) statistical analysis tool was successfully coupled with GeN-Foam to perform uncertainty quantification studies. The uncertainties were propagated through the input design parameters, and the output uncertainties were characterized using statistical analysis and Spearman rank correlation coefficients. Three analyses are performed (namely, scalar, functional, and three-dimensional analyses) to understand the impact of input uncertainty propagation on temperature and velocity predictions. Preliminary three-dimensional reactor analysis showed that the thermal expansion coefficient, heat transfer coefficient, and specific heat of the fuel salt are the crucial input parameters that influence the temperature and velocity predictions inside the LFMSR system.

Ripple-induced neoclassical toroidal viscous torque in Augmented-First Plasma operation phase in ITER

Abstract A systematic calculation is performed on the ripple-induced neoclassical toroidal viscous (NTV) torque for new ITER scenarios designed for the Augmented-First Plasma (A-FP) operation phase with the full tungsten wall, where the plasma-wall gap is varied in view of mitigating the impact of tungsten wall-plasma interactions. The torque calculation includes drift kinetic response of the plasma thermal and energetic particles to the n = 18 (n is the toroidal harmonic number) ripple field. For the plasma scenario with ~45 cm plasma-wall gap at the outboard mid-plane and considering the corrected ripple level of 0.17% by the ferritic steel inserts, the computed net NTV torque acting on the plasma column is in the sub-Nm level. However, with decreasing the plasma-wall gap, the computed net NTV torque can reach a level comparable to that produced by the neutral-beam momentum injection in ITER. Ripple correction by ferritic inserts reduces the net torque by a factor of 3.3 for all the three A-FP scenarios considered. The n ω d = l ω b (with ω d and ω b being the toroidal precession and bounce frequencies of trapped particles, respectively, and l an integer number) type of resonance-enhancement of the NTV torque, due to thermal particles, is found to be weak in ITER despite high-n of 18. The same also holds for the ITER 10 MA steady state scenario from the D-T operation phase, where the aforementioned resonance associated with fusion-born alphas is also included. The ripple-induced NTV torque is well below that produced by the resonant magnetic perturbation applied for controlling the type-I edge-localized mode in ITER.

Overview of recent experimental results on the EAST Tokamak

Since the last IAEA-FEC in 2021, significant progress on the development of long pulse steady state scenario and its related key physics and technologies have been achieved, including the reproducible 403 s long-pulse steady-state H-mode plasma with pure radio frequency (RF) power heating. A thousand-second time scale (∼1056 s) fully non-inductive plasma with high injected energy up to 1.73 GJ has also been achieved. The EAST operational regime of high β P has been significantly extended (H 98y2 > 1.3, β P ∼ 4.0, β N ∼ 2.4 and n e/n GW ∼ 1.0) using RF and neutral beam injection (NBI). The full edge localized mode suppression using the n = 4 resonant magnetic perturbations has been achieved in ITER-like standard type-I ELMy H-mode plasmas with q 95 ≈ 3.1 on EAST, extrapolating favorably to the ITER baseline scenario. The sustained large ELM control and stable partial detachment have been achieved with Ne seeding. The underlying physics of plasma-beta effect for error field penetration, where toroidal effect dominates, is disclosed by comparing the results in cylindrical theory and MARS-Q simulation in EAST. Breakdown and plasma initiation at low toroidal electric fields (<0.3 V m−1) with EC pre-ionization is developed. A beneficial role on the lower hybrid wave injection to control the tungsten concentration in the NBI discharge is observed for the first time in EAST suggesting a potential way toward steady-state H-mode NBI operation.

Resistive wall mode and fishbone mode in ITER steady state scenario: roles of fusion-born alphas and plasma flow

Drift-kinetic effects of fusion-born alpha particles on the n= 1 (n is the toroidal mode number) resistive wall mode (RWM) is numerically investigated for a recent design of the ITER 10 MA steady state plasma scenario, utilizing a magneto-hydrodynamic (MHD)-kinetic hybrid toroidal model. While the fluid theory predicts unstable RWM as the normalized plasma pressure β N exceeds the no-wall Troyon limit and with the mode growth rate monotonically increasing with β N, inclusion of the drift-kinetic contribution of trapped alphas qualitatively modifies the behavior by stabilizing the mode at high β N. In fact, a complete stabilization of the n= 1 RWM up to the ideal-wall Troyon limit is found. On the other hand, another unstable branch—the alpha-driven n = 1 fishbone mode (FB)—is identified in the high-β N regime, with the mode frequency matching that of the toroidal precession frequency of trapped alphas. Fast plasma toroidal flow however helps mitigate the FB instability. Kinetic stabilization of the RWM and flow stabilization of the (alpha-triggered) FB result in an enhancement of β N from the design value of 3.22–3.52 for the ITER scenario considered, while still maintaining stable plasma operation against the aforementioned MHD instabilities.

Designing an efficient adaptive EWMA model for normal process with engineering applications

Stability in process parameters is required to ensure the quality of the finished item. Control charts, as one of the critical parts of statistical process monitoring (SPM), have seen widespread use across many disciplines for detecting and responding to shifts in process parameters. The adaptive EWMA (AEWMA) control chartis a well-known scheme that detects both small and large process shifts by integrating the features of the Shewhart and classical EWMA charts. In this study, we propose an enhanced AEWMA chart, termed the EAEWMA chart, that efficiently monitors small and large process mean shifts simultaneously. The proposed EAEWMA chart enhances the existing AEWMA chart using the shift estimator, based on the hybrid EWMA (HEWMA) statistic. The Monte Carlo simulation approach is employed as the computational method to obtain the numerical findings for the various performance metrics. The EAEWMA chart is compared with various existing charts, including AEWMA, HEWMA, EWMA, ACSUM, and IACCUSUM, in zero- and steady-state scenarios. Conclusively, two practical applications of the EAEWMA chart are presented, demonstrating its value for practitioners and engineers and illustrating its efficacy in real-world scenarios.

Impact of large-scale renewable energy integration on the grid voltage stability

Nowadays, the production of renewable energy is increasing rapidly due to its enormous potential and environmental advantages. Still, the addition of renewable energy to the grid has resulted in some volatility in the electrical system. In this work, the national grid of Ethiopia is used as an example to examine the impact of significant wind power integration on grid stability. In particular, issues with voltage stability in both steady-state and emergency scenarios are taken into account for the network. The dynamic modeling of the wind farm is taken into consideration for contingency-based analysis, and the whole nation's power network, including the largest wind farm in the nation, Adama-II, is modeled for base-case analysis using MATLAB's built-in PSAT software. The result indicates that the bus voltages are within an acceptable standard voltage range for the base-case system. Nevertheless, the wind farm will be disconnected from the network in compliance with the global manufacturer's guideline in the case of a three-phase fault at the network point of common coupling (PCC), where the voltage at PCC is equivalent to 0.045 per unit voltage. The results also demonstrate that the voltage profile throughout the whole nation power network is lower when there is a problem at PCC. As a result, as Ethiopia is building several huge wind farms, it is advised that fault detection and control methods be thoroughly designed before connecting the major wind farms to the grid.

Numerical solution of static and spatial kinetics self-adjoint angular flux neutron transport equation

This paper elucidates a comprehensive derivation of the variational formulation pertaining to the static and spatial kinetics self-adjoint angular flux (SAAF) neutron transport equation. The methodology employed for discretization of the spatial variable is the finite element method, while the energy group discretization is executed via the group method, and the directional discretization is conducted using the discrete ordinates method. Analytic expressions for the discretization to variable separation under both vacuum and reflective boundary conditions are furnished. Constructed upon the MOOSE framework, a code designated as SAAFCGSN has been developed for the resolution of the SAAF neutron transport equation. The zero-order scattering matrix within this computational framework is managed through an innovative "decoupling" method, thereby enhancing the computational efficiency significantly. The functionality and robustness of the SAAFCGSN code are corroborated through meticulous evaluation involving seven distinct steady-state scenarios as well as two transient states. Empirical outcomes verify the compatibility of the SAAFCGSN code with both structured and unstructured mesh, inclusive of their amalgamations, thus facilitating maintenance and ensuring elevated computational accuracy. In addition, a performance analysis benchmarked against IAEA standards reveals that the adoption of the scattering matrix "decoupling" method propels a computational speed increase exceeding 30 %, signifying a notable advancement in calculation efficiency.

Fast ion relaxation in ITER mediated by Alfvén instabilities

We address the critical issue for future burning plasmas of whether high-energy fusion products or auxiliary heating-beam ions will be confined for a sufficiently long time to compensate for thermal plasma energy losses. This issue can be mitigated by one of the most deleterious collective phenomena—the instability of low, sub-cyclotron frequency Alfvén eigenmodes (AEs), such as toroidicity-induced AEs and reversed-shear AEs in the ITER steady-state scenario. Using a revised quasi-linear (QL) theory applied to energetic particle (EP) relaxation in the presence of AEs, we find that the AE instabilities can affect both neutral beam ions and alpha particles, although the resulting fast ion transport is expected to be modest if classical particle slowing down is assumed. On the other hand, the QL theory predicts that the AE amplitudes will be enhanced by the background microturbulence, although this topic remains outside our scope due to the significant numerical effort required to evaluate these effects. We report our results for EP relaxation dynamics obtained utilizing several tools: (i) a comprehensive linear stability study of the sub-cyclotron Alfvénic spectrum as computed by ideal magnetohydrodynamic NOVA simulations for the AE eigenproblem, (ii) drift kinetic NOVA-C calculations for wave–particle interaction and AE growth/damping rates, and (iii) predictive QL modeling coupled with the global transport code TRANSP to assess the EP relaxation on the equilibrium timescale.

Integrated energy cyber–physical system fusion modeling and operation state analysis under the cooperative attack

With the increasingly close coupling between the cyber system and the physical system, cyber attacks have a significant impact on the physical system by attacking the cyber system. As a cyber–physical system with multiple energy sources, integrated energy cyber–physical system (IECPS) is facing the risk of cyber attacks. However, the research on IECPS is still in the direction of operation optimization at the physical level, which cannot meet the requirements of system security and stability analysis under cyber cooperative attacks. Firstly, this paper analyzes the interaction mechanism between the energy network composed of electricity, heat and gas and the cyber network in IECPS, and put forward a layered modeling method of IECPS to analyze the influence of abnormal information flow caused by cyber attacks on energy flow. Secondly, based on the energy circuit method (ECM), a hybrid calculation method of IECPS energy-information flow is proposed to solve the model. Then, the load shedding state of IECPS and the tampering process of system control commands after the fake data injection attack are analyzed by using the proposed calculation method. Finally, the simulation analysis is carried out in an integrated energy system composed of IEEE 39-node power grid, 6-node heating network and 7-node gas network. The results show that, compared with the traditional Newton–Raphson method, the proposed IECPS hybrid calculation method can better obtain the change results of energy flow in the steady-state scenario and the cyber cooperative attack scenario, and identify the high-risk branches in the system, which is of great significance to the safe and stable operation of the energy system.

Velocity-field based load estimation of an unsteady actuator disc

Traditional methods for determining the load of an object in unsteady cases, such as Control-volume Momentum Integration (CMI) and Noca methods, encounter challenges related to near-body acceleration and pressure estimation. This prompts the need for innovative techniques to overcome these limitations. This study introduces a novel vorticity-based approach to expand classical load determination methods. The numerical results of an unsteady actuator disc (AD) CFD simulation are used to verify and quantify the uncertainty of the three methods. In the AD model, the load is prescribed and used as a source term. The velocity and pressure fields are solved from the Navier-Stokes equations using the open-source CFD package OpenFOAM, which offers a robust validation framework. Systematic examination of the robustness and accuracy of the three methods across various load and motion unsteady scenarios reveals that the proposed vorticity-based method excels in steady-state scenarios, exhibiting the highest level of robustness and accuracy. In contrast, the traditional CMI method proves more robust and accurate in pure motion cases. In scenarios involving static and moving AD with load variations, the new vorticity-based method demonstrates superior robustness and accuracy, mainly when moderate vorticity dynamics. Conversely, in cases with increased vorticity dynamics in the wake, the accuracy of the vorticity-based method decreases, with the CMI method showing superiority.

Modified exponentially weighted moving average control chart for monitoring process dispersion

The exponentially weighted moving average ( EWMA ) charts are widely used memory-type charts for monitoring small to moderate shifts in process parameters. However, the performance of the EWMA chart has been improved over time due to various modifications and enhancements. This paper proposes two modified EWMA ( M ‐ EWMA ) charts to monitor process dispersion. The upper-sided modified EWMA chart is denoted by M ‐ EWMA U , while a lower-sided modified EWMA chart is symbolized as the M ‐ EWMA L chart. Monte Carlo simulations determine the proposed schemes’ run length (RL) properties in zero- and steady-state scenarios. The proposed upper- and lower-sided M ‐ EWMA charts are compared to the upper- and lower-sided CH ‐ EWMA and SJ-EWMA charts. The comparisons reveal that the proposed M-EWMA charts have better detection ability than the upper- and lower-sided CH-EWMA, and SJ-EWMA charts, respectively. Finally, a real-life application is provided to illustrate the implementation of the upper-sided M-EWMA and CH-EWMA charts practically in both zero-state and steady-state cases.

Exploring the effect of ELM and code-coupling frequencies on plasma and material modeling of dynamic recycling in divertors

Integrated modeling of plasma-surface interactions provides a comprehensive and self-consistent description of the system, moving the field closer to developing predictive and design capabilities for plasma facing components. One such workflow, including descriptions for the scrape-off-layer plasma, ion-surface interactions and the sub-surface evolution, was previously used to address steady-state scenarios and has recently been extended to incorporate time-dependence and two-way information flow. The new model can address dynamic recycling in transient scenarios, such as the application presented in this paper: the evolution of W samples pre-damaged by helium and exposed to ELMy H-mode plasmas in the DIII-D DiMES. A first set of simulations explored the effect of ELM frequency. This study was discussed in detail in this conference’s proceedings and is summarized here. The 2nd set of simulations, which is the focus of this paper, explores the effect of code-coupling frequency. These simulations include initial SOLPS solutions converged to the inter-ELM state, ion impact energy (E in) and angles (A in) calculated by hPIC2, and an improved heat transfer description in Xolotl. The model predicts increases in particle fluxes and decreases in heat fluxes by 10%–20% with the coupling time-step. Compared with the first set of simulations, the less shallow impact angle leads to smaller reflection rates and significant D implantation. The higher fraction of implanted flux (and deeper), in particular during ELMs, increases the accumulated D content in the W near-surface region. Future expansion of the workflow includes coupling to hPIC2 and GITR to ensure accurate descriptions of E in and A in, and W impurity transport.

Energy Bus-Based Matrix Modeling and Optimal Scheduling for Integrated Energy Systems

Integrated energy systems (IESs) can easily accommodate renewable energy resources (RESs) and improve the utilization efficiency of fossil energy by integrating various energy production, conversion, and storage technologies. However, the coupled multi-energy flows and the uncertainty of RESs bring challenges regarding optimal scheduling. Therefore, this study proposes an energy bus-based matrix-modeling method and a coordinated scheduling strategy for the IES. The matrix-modeling method can be used to formulate the steady- and transient-state balances of the multi-energy flows, and the transient model can clearly express the multi-time-scale characteristics of the different energy flows. The model parameters are fitted with data from experiments and the literature. To address the inherent randomness of the RESs and loads, a coordinated scheduling strategy is designed that contains two components: day-ahead optimization and rolling optimization. Day-ahead optimization uses the system steady-state model and multiple scenarios from the RES and load forecast data to minimize the operation cost while rolling optimization is based on the system’s transient-state model and aims to achieve the optimal real-time scheduling of the energy flows. Finally, a case study is conducted to verify the advantages and effectiveness of the proposed model and optimization method. The results show that stochastic optimization reduces the total daily cost by 1.48% compared to deterministic optimization when considering the prediction errors associated with the RESs and loads, highlighting the stronger adaptability of stochastic optimization to prediction errors. Moreover, rolling optimization based on the system’s transient-state model can reduce the errors between day-ahead scheduling and rolling correction.

Prospects of negative triangularity tokamak for advanced steady-state confinement of fusion plasmas in MHD stability consideration

The steady-state confinement, beta limit, and divertor heat load are among the most concerned issues for toroidal confinement of fusion plasmas. In this work, we show that the negative triangularity tokamak has promising prospects to address these issues. We first demonstrate that the negative triangularity tokamak generates the filed line rotation transform more effectively. This brings bright prospects for the advanced steady-state tokamak scenario. Given this, the MHD stability and equilibrium confinement of negative triangularity tokamak are investigated. We point out that the negative triangularity configuration with a broad pressure profile is indeed more unstable for low-n magnetohydrodynamic modes than the positive triangularity case so that the H-mode confinement can hardly be achieved in this configuration, where n is the toroidal mode number. Nevertheless, we found that the negative triangularity configuration with high bootstrap current fraction, high poloidal beta, and peaked pressure profiles can achieve higher normalized beta for low-n modes than the positive triangularity case. In a certain parameter domain, the normalized beta can reach about twice the extended Troyon limit, while the same computation indicates that the positive triangularity configuration is indeed constrained by the Troyon limit. This shows that the negative triangularity tokamaks are not only favorable for divertor design to avoid the edge localized modes but also can have promising prospects for advanced steady-state confinement of fusion plasmas in high beta.

Electron ITB formation in EAST high poloidal beta plasmas under dominant electron heating

Plasma confinement and transport in tokamaks play a crucial role in the development of high poloidal beta steady-state operation scenarios. Therefore, it is very important to study the relevant mechanism of internal transport barriers (ITBs), which can help plasmas to obtain better confinement in order to achieve higher fusion gain. This paper mainly introduces the analysis of the characteristics of electron heat transport of discharges with ITB in high βP operation regime in Experimental Advanced Superconducting Tokamak (EAST). Based on the statistical analysis of stable discharges with βP > 1.5, it is found that there is an obvious bifurcation of the normalised electron temperature gradient (ETG) ( R/LTe ) in the range of βP = 2–2.2. Then the discharges of lower βP ( βP < 2, where the value of βP is below the bifurcation threshold) and of higher βP ( βP > 2.2, where the value of βP is above the threshold) were selected for analysis. The diagnostic data provided by Thomson scattering, x-ray crystal spectrometry and charge exchange recombination spectroscopy are used to provide reliable parameter profiles and then combined with the data of external magnetic probe measurements and the polarisation interferometer diagnosis system to fully reconstruct the balance. A relevant plasma current calculation model is used to calculate and analyse the current density profiles and power deposition, and then the transport analysis is carried out. Interestingly, in the higher βP discharges, it is found that the turbulence intensity provided by the CO2 laser collective scattering system gradually decreases and the normalised ETG R/LTe gradually increases. It is also found that the electron heat transport coefficient decreases in the discharge with higher βP and the growth rate of the electron-scale turbulence calculated by transport gyro-Landau fluid (TGLF) is significantly reduced. Meanwhile, similar conclusions are also obtained in the discharges when the βP is further increased.

Computational study of the Nitrogen-16 source term in the ITER vacuum vessel cooling circuit through the coupling of system-level analysis code and CFD

In ITER, the evaluation of the activated water radiation source and its impact on the radiological levels is necessary to demonstrate compliance with the safety requirements. The use of simplified or conservative approaches often results in the application of expensive constraints on the installation that impact its economics, operations, and construction schedule. In this work, we propose a novel methodology to calculate the activated water source term with a higher degree of realism. The methodology is based on the coupling of a system-level code with a Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) code in an explicit, one-way approach. We apply this methodology to the evaluation of the 16N radioisotope within the ITER Vacuum Vessel Primary Heat Transfer System (VV-PHTS) cooling circuit in a steady-state and transient scenarios. We chose this system since previous analyses of the VV-PHTS were done with simple, ad-hoc calculations that yielded results that differed by up to a factor of five, underscoring a higher level of uncertainty. As a result, we generate a computational model of the source term that can be used to evaluate the radiological condition surrounding the cooling systems during the operations.

Integrated Control Design for a Partially Turboelectric Aircraft Propulsion System

Abstract Electrified Aircraft Propulsion (EAP) holds great potential for reducing aviation emissions and fuel burn. A variety of EAP architectures have been proposed including partially turbo-electric configurations that combine turbofan engines with motor-driven propulsors. Such architectures exhibit coupling between subsystems and thus require an integrated control solution. To address this need, this paper presents an integrated control design strategy for a commercial single-aisle partially turbo-electric aircraft concept consisting of two wing-mounted turbofan engines and an electric motor driven tailfan propulsor. Within this architecture the turbofans serve the dual purpose of generating thrust and supplying mechanical offtake power used to generate electricity for the tailfan motor. The propulsion control system is tasked with coordinating turbofan and tailfan operation under both steady-state and transient scenarios. The paper introduces a linear state-space representation of the architecture reflecting the coupling between the turbofan and tailfan subsystems along with loop transfer functions reflecting open- and closed-loop system dynamics. Also discussed is an applied strategy for scheduling the tailfan setpoint command based on the average sensed fan speed of the two turbofans. This approach ensures synchronized operation of the turbofan and tailfan subsystems while also allowing the turbofan fuel control design to be simplified. Performance of the integrated control design is assessed through a real-time hardware-in-the-loop test conducted at the NASA Electric Aircraft Testbed. During this test a scaled version of the electrical system and turbomachinery shaft dynamics were implemented in electrical machine hardware and evaluated under closed-loop control. Results from this facility test are presented to illustrate the efficacy of the applied integrated control design approach under steady-state and transient scenarios including a full-flight mission profile.