Status Stratification Research Articles

Intergroup alliance orientation among intermediate-status group members: The role of stability of social stratification.

Three studies have tested the hypothesis that intermediate-status groups are more oriented to ally with outgroups when their social position is under threat. In study 1, participants believed that their ingroup was intermediate in status and social stratification was manipulated as either stable or status-detrimental unstable. Results indicated that participants were more likely to seek alliances a) with a high-status group and b) when social stratification was status-detrimental unstable. Study 2 showed that participants were more likely to seek alliances with a lower status group when social stratification was status-detrimental unstable rather than stable, while they were supportive of policies helping disadvantaged groups regardless of the stability of social stratification. Study 3 showed that when social stratification was status-detrimental unstable, intermediate-status group members were more oriented to ally with a low-status group, equally supportive of policies helping disadvantaged groups, but less oriented to supplying direct help to a low-status group.

Legal Exclusion, Civic Exclusion: How Legal Status Stratifies Latino Immigrants’ Civic Engagement

Unlike many other sociopolitical activities in the United States, civic engagement is not restricted by legal status and is often the initial and primary form of political action available to immigrants. Few studies, however, have disaggregated the impact of legal status on immigrants’ civic participation, despite civic engagement’s significance for immigrant incorporation and despite growing evidence of the stratifying effects of legal categories. Using Wave 1 of the Los Angeles Family and Neighborhood Survey, I nuance theories of legal status stratification by showing where legal status matters for Latino immigrants’ civic engagement and where it does not. Undocumented immigrants, I show, are significantly less likely to participate in general civic organizations, such as community and ethnic organizations, relative to documented immigrants. Likewise, undocumented mothers with undocumented children are less likely to volunteer in schools or participate in parent-teacher associations, compared to both documented mothers and undocumented mothers with documented children. By contrast, legal status does not stratify membership in religious institutions. Moreover, I theorize that undocumented immigrants’ lower levels of general civic engagement are partially mediated by access to US education, a significant site for immigrants’ civic development. This article informs understandings of legal status stratification and immigrant social incorporation.

The Impermanence of Permanence: The Rise of Probationary Immigration in Canada

AbstractThis article engages with arguments that contemporary immigration politics is defined by a “loss of settlement” by examining recent developments in Canadian immigration and refugee policy that have made permanent residence less permanent. We suggest that the rise of probationary immigration has been facilitated by horizontal status stratification within groups that were historically marked by relative status equality. In order to examine this claim empirically in the Canadian context, we analyze the rise of temporary foreign worker recruitment, the move from “one‐step” to “two‐step” immigration, and changes to refugee policy that, for the first time, linked loss of refugee status to the loss of permanent resident status.

CYP2B6 genetic polymorphisms influence chronic obstructive pulmonary disease susceptibility in the Hainan population.

IntroductionChronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) is a lung disease closely related to exposure to exogenous substances. CYP2B6 can activate many exogenous substances, which in turn affect lung cells. The aim of this study was to assess the association of single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) in CYP2B6 with COPD risk in a Chinese Han population.Materials and methodsGenotypes of the five candidate SNPs in CYP2B6 were identified among 318 cases and 508 healthy controls with an Agena MassARRAY method. The association between CYP2B6 polymorphisms and COPD risk was evaluated using genetic models and haplotype analyses.ResultsIn allele model, we observed that rs4803420 G and rs1038376 A were related to COPD risk. And rs4803420 G/T and G/T-T/T were related to a decreased COPD risk compared to GG genotype in the co-dominant and dominant models, respectively. When comparing with the AA genotype, rs1038376 A/T and A/T-T/T were associated with an increased COPD risk in the co-dominant and dominant models, respectively. Further gender stratification co-dominant and dominant models analysis showed that genotype G/T and G/T-T/T of rs4803420, and genotype A/T and A/T-T/T of rs1038376 were significantly associated with COPD risk compared to the wide type in males and females, while allele C of rs12979270 was only associated with COPD risk in females. Smoking status stratification analysis showed that rs12979270 C was significantly associated with an increased COPD risk under the allele model compared with allele A in the smoking subgroup. Haplotype analysis showed that haplotype GTA and TAA were related to COPD risk.ConclusionOur data is the first to demonstrate that CYP2B6 polymorphisms may exert effects on COPD susceptibility in the Chinese Han population.

Obesity paradox in cardiovascular disease: where do we stand?

Obesity is associated with an increased risk of developing cardiovascular disease (CVD), particularly heart failure (HF) and coronary heart disease (CHD). The mechanisms through which obesity increases CVD risk involve changes in body composition that can affect hemodynamics and alters heart structure. Pro-inflammatory cytokines produced by the adipose tissue itself which can induce cardiac dysfunction and can promote the formation of atherosclerotic plaques. When obesity and HF or CHD coexist, individuals with class I obesity present a more favorable prognosis compared to individuals who are normal or underweight. This phenomenon has been termed the “obesity paradox.” Obesity is defined as an excess fat mass (FM), but individuals with obesity typically also present with an increased amount of lean mass (LM). The increase in LM may explain part of the obesity paradox as it is associated with improved cardiorespiratory fitness (CRF), a major determinant of clinical outcomes in the general population, but particularly in those with CVD, including HF. While increased LM is a stronger prognosticator in HF compared to FM, in patients with CHD excess FM can exert protective effects particularly when not associated with increased systemic inflammation. In the present review, we discuss the mechanisms through which obesity may increase the risk for CVD, and how it may exert protective effects in the setting of established CVD, with a focus on body composition. We also highlight the importance of measuring or estimating CRF, including body composition-adjusted measures of CRF (ie, lean peak oxygen consumption) for an improved risk status stratification in patients with CVD and finally, we discuss the potential non-pharmacologic therapeutics, such as exercise training and dietary interventions, aimed at improving CRF and perhaps clinical outcomes.

Stratified citizenship, stratified health: Examining latinx legal status in the U.S. healthcare safety net

Our paper explores how legal status stratification shapes the health and health care of low-income patients with chronic illnesses in the U.S. healthcare safety net. Drawing on data from over two years of ethnographic fieldwork at urban safety-net clinics, we examine efforts by Complex Care Management (CCM) teams to stabilize patients with uncontrolled chronic illnesses through primary care-integrated support. We show that stratified citizenship and geographic variability correspond to different possibilities for health care. We suggest an approach to immigration as a structural determinant of health that accounts for the complex, stratified, and changing nature of citizenship status. We also highlight how geographical differences and interactions among local, state, and federal policies support the notion that citizenship is stratified across multiple tiers with distinctive possibilities and constraints for health. While county-based health plans at each of the study sites include residents with varying legal status, lack of formal legal status remains a substantial obstacle to care. Many immigrants are unable to take full advantage of primary and specialty care, resulting in unnecessary morbidity and mortality. In some cases, patients have returned to their country of origin to die. While CCM teams provide an impressive level of support to assist immigrant patients in navigating healthcare and immigration bureaucracies, legal and geographic stratification limit their ability to address broader aspects of these patients’ social context.

Association between cagA negative Helicobacter pylori status and nonalcoholic fatty liver disease among adults in the United States.

We investigated the relationship of H. pylori stratified by cytotoxin-associated gene A (cagA) status with nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) in the general population of the United States (US). We utilized the Third National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey from 1988 to 1994 in this study. NAFLD was defined by ultrasonographic detection of hepatic steatosis in the absence of other known causes of liver diseases and significant alcohol consumption. Hepatic steatosis was assessed by parenchymal brightness, liver to kidney contrast, deep beam attenuation, bright vessel walls and gallbladder wall definition. Antibodies to H. pylori and cagA of participants were measured using H. pylori IgG and anti-cagA IgG enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays. Among 5,404 participants, the prevalence of NAFLD was higher in H. pylori positive subjects (33.5±1.8%) compared to H. pylori negative subjects (26.1±1.7%, p <0.001). In terms of cagA protein status stratification, while cagA positive H. pylori group did not demonstrate an association with NAFLD (OR: 1.05; 95% CI: 0.81–1.37), cagA negative H. pylori group was noted to have a significant association with NAFLD in a multivariable analysis (OR: 1.30; 95% CI: 1.01–1.67). In conclusion, our study demonstrated that cagA negative H. pylori infection was an independent predictor of NAFLD in the US general population.

Stratums of Members of Local Internet Communities: Main Features and Characteristics

The article examines aspects of network societies functioning, describes characteristics of stratified scales in local Internet communities. The study of various aspects of stratification in virtual groups is based on a practical social research aimed at social and stratification analysis of local Internet communities existing in the cyber domains of large Russian cities. On the basis of generalization of theorizes and processing of the data received, the authors come to the conclusion that there is a stratified scale in any local community, according to which the users are ranged. The diversity of the entire system of criteria for status and role stratification, the skills of community members in applying these criteria influence the moderation rights used by the formal and informal leaders of the network community, and ultimately influence the controllability of interaction within the virtual group. Stratification within local virtual groups is systemic, since in the absence of it a social order is impossible. However, the stable functioning of the Internet community is not possible without a stratified system as a form of institutionalization of social action.

Changes in mortality inequalities across occupations in Japan: a national register based study of absolute and relative measures, 1980-2010

ObjectiveChanges in mortality inequalities across socioeconomic groups have been a substantial public health concern worldwide. We investigated changes in absolute/relative mortality inequalities across occupations, and the contribution of different diseases...

Sustainable Competitive Disadvantage: Toward a Socio-Economic View of Firm Performance

We examine the mirror image of sustained competitive advantage, namely, sustainable competitive disadvantage. We begin by reviewing the theoretical and empirical literature on sustained competitive advantage. Our review suggests it’s not just firms in superior positions that sustain their performance, but also firms in the remainder of the performance spectrum, including those occupying positions around and below the norm. These latter firms neither improve their performance over time nor are they eliminated by competitive forces, suggesting the existence of sustainable competitive disadvantage. Next, we draw on status based theories of competition, in particular mid-status conformity theory, to explain the coexistence of sustained advantage and sustainable disadvantage in the performance distribution of firms. In our theorizing, we distinguish between three performance levels corresponding to above, around, and below the norm which we label sustainable superiority, sustainable normalcy, and sustainable inferiority. Our thesis is that a performance distribution with these features reflects a reinforcing homology between social status stratification and economic performance stratification that obtains in equilibrium. Our framework highlights the need for theory that explains the entire performance distribution of firms, while suggesting that competitive advantage and disadvantage are outcomes of both social and economic forces in an industry.

Communal Identity Transformation in Soqotra: From Status Hierarchy to Ethnic Ranking

Abstract This article examines the transformation of communal identities and social hierarchies on Soqotra Island. This is done through a “structural anatomy” of Soqotra’s changing social organization and a “lexical genealogy” of the collective identities ascribed to, or assumed by, Soqotrans in response to the polity formation strategies of a succession of British and Yemeni political regimes from the late nineteenth century until the present. Following a brief historical and theoretical introduction, Part I outlines the status stratification system that prevailed only a generation ago in the form of an ascriptive hierarchy based on ethno-occupational specializations and territorial segmentation linked to distinct ecological habitats, which continues to mediate the integration of Soqotrans into the emergent modern social formation. Part II describes how communal identities over the past generation have been leveraged by various national and transregional political and cultural forces, leading to an emerging hierarchy of ethnicity-based identities. The concluding section updates the current status of Soqotra’s traditional social groups and highlights the dynamic relationality between communal identity transformation and political and historical contingencies.

The Conflict Paradigm in Sociology and the Study of Social Inequality: Paradox and Possibility

INTRODUCTIONConflict theory is one of the major paradigms used by sociologists to make sense of the social world. All sociology that takes as its object of study the processes by which social groups compete with each other for scarce resources such as power, wealth, and status, or the inequalities that result from these competitions, falls within the conflict paradigm (Collins 1990).Conflict sociology constitutes a substantial portion of all contemporary sociological research. An examination of the six 2013 issues of American Sociological Review, the American Sociological Association's flagship journal, reveals that approximately 75% of the articles published in this journal fall within the conflict paradigm (31 out of 42, by my count), and many other sociology journals continue to document the dynamics and consequences of social inequality. Marx's writings on the relations of production in capitalism, and his thesis that historical change is a product of the conflict between economic classes gave conflict theory its initial form. However, sociologists have since extended the basic structure of Marx's theory to many other groups in competition in addition to those defined by the relations of production. For example, Weber's classic treatment of status stratification and structures of domination extended Marx's basic model of group competition over resources to include dimensions of social esteem and power. Contemporary conflict sociology continues this tradition by studying the dynamics of a variety of group inequalities such as race, gender, sexual orientation categories, as well as inter-organizational competition (Collins 1975).There is much at stake in social inequalities. Conflict theory impels us to recognize that every dimension of social structure can be conceptualized in terms of winners and losers, and social conflict often causes disastrous and tragic consequences for the losers in the social struggle. People are tortured, mutilated, and incinerated as a consequence of social conflict; they are also shunned, humiliated, exploited, and otherwise systematically shortchanged by the social structures they take part in. Social conflict induces the worst behavior of human beings toward each other. This harm is a necessary consequence of the maintenance of stratified social structure, as social interest groups seek to protect and extend their own privileges while minimizing those of their competitors, and the potential for great harm is exacerbated in industrial societies with access to weapons of mass destruction.This is the essential insight of conflict sociology: social conflict and inequality are fundamental to social structure. Yet at the same time, efforts to combat social inequalities by conflict sociologists and policy makers have largely been limited to ex post facto attempts at writing equality into social structure; the liberal welfare state is the archetypal example. This produces a paradox, in which social conflict and inequality are understood to be a necessary consequence of social structure, and yet efforts are made to write equality into social structure, both in the form of actual resource transfers, and in the kinds of policy recommendations offered by conflict sociologists. The irony of this position is brought into high relief when attempts to alter social structure to reduce inequalities are met with stiff resistance by those who benefit from those inequalities: Attempts at ex post facto resource distribution - managing social conflicts and their resultant inequalities after the inequality has already manifested - ultimately reproduce the conditions that create the inequality in the first place by reproducing the conflict of interest between those who benefit from social structure and those who are disproportionately shortchanged by it. Ex post facto resource redistribution can potentially mitigate some of the inequalities that arise from social conflict, but it fails to address fundamental questions concerning how and why inequalities are built into social structure. …

Abstract 1871: “Capturing the elusive foe”: A novel telomerase promoter-based approach to detect melanoma circulating tumor cells

Abstract BACKGROUND: The treatment of melanoma is rapidly evolving, with many recently introduced systemic therapies. The management of individual patients, however, remains challenging. Decisions on when to initiate and discontinue specific treatments rely on imprecise methods such as imaging studies, and patient outcomes often remain less than optimal. An assay that can be performed conveniently, safely, and serially could usefully complement current assessments of disease burden. Circulating tumor cell (CTC) analysis fulfills all these criteria and may assist in determining true disease status and risk stratification. However, commercial CTC assays that target epithelial cell markers are ineffective for melanoma. We, therefore, investigated the use of a novel telomerase-based assay for melanoma CTCs. METHODS: The assay utilizes an adenoviral vector that, in the presence of elevated human telomerase (hTERT) activity, drives the expression of green fluorescent protein (GFP). This confers sensitivity and specificity, as telomerase activity is elevated in almost all cancer cells but not elevated in almost all normal cells. The tumor cells are identified via an image processing system that applies cutoff criteria of fluorescent intensity and size. The cells are co-stained with anti-Melan-A to confirm their melanoma origin. The assay was tested on melanoma cells in culture, in control blood, and on samples from 10 patients with metastatic melanoma. RESULTS: The assay was effective for all melanoma cell lines tested with sensitivity of 92% (95% confidence interval (CI) 84.4-99.1%) and specificity of 99% (95%CI 99.5-99.6%). It was also effective in control blood from healthy volunteers (limit of detection = 1.1 CTCs/mL). In a pilot trial of patients with metastatic disease, CTCs were identified in 9 of 10 patients (the tenth patient was without evidence of disease after treatment) with mean count of 6.0 CTCs/mL (range 0.7-27.1 CTCs/mL). In a linear regression model, CTC counts were significantly increased in patients with greater burden of disease (p = 0.02) and significantly decreased in patients with current or recent cytotoxic chemotherapy (p = 0.02). Interestingly, prior or active immunotherapy did not significantly affect CTC levels. Patient demographics, primary tumor location, and sites of metastases also did not appear to significantly affect CTC levels. CONCLUSIONS: To our knowledge, this is the first report of a telomerase-based assay for detecting melanoma cells. This assay was effective in identifying melanoma cells in culture and in the peripheral blood of patients with metastatic melanoma. Greater disease burden appears to be associated with increased CTC levels while cytotoxic chemotherapy appears to be associated with decreased CTC levels. Longer term follow-up and serial assays may validate the ultimate usefulness of this assay in the management of patients with melanoma. Citation Format: Melody Ju, Gary D. Kao, Charles B. Simone, David Steinmetz, Xiangsheng Xu, Louise Aguarin, Wei Xu, Edmund Bartlett, Stephen M. Hahn, Jay F. Dorsey, Giorgos Karakousis. “Capturing the elusive foe”: A novel telomerase promoter-based approach to detect melanoma circulating tumor cells. [abstract]. In: Proceedings of the 105th Annual Meeting of the American Association for Cancer Research; 2014 Apr 5-9; San Diego, CA. Philadelphia (PA): AACR; Cancer Res 2014;74(19 Suppl):Abstract nr 1871. doi:10.1158/1538-7445.AM2014-1871

Nonresectoscopic Endometrial Ablation in High-Risk Surgical Patients: A Cohort Study

Study ObjectiveTo evaluate the use of nonresectoscopic endometrial ablation in women with high anesthetic and surgical risk compared with low-risk women based on the American Society of Anesthesia (ASA) physical status stratification. DesignThis is a cohort study of women who were classified as high-risk (HR) or low-risk (LR) cohorts based on ASA physical status stratification. The ASA classification includes 6 grades: ASAP1, a normal healthy person; ASAP2, mild systemic disease; ASAP3, severe systemic disease; ASAP4, severe systemic disease that is a constant threat to life; ASAP5, a critically ill patient who is not expected to survive without the operation; and ASAP6, declared brain-dead patient whose organs are being removed for donor purposes. Baseline characteristics including comorbidities were obtained. Outcome measures included amenorrhea, treatment failure, and operative complications. The time to treatment failure was compared using Kaplan-Meier analysis. Risk adjustments were performed using regression models. SettingAcademic medical center in the Upper Midwest. PatientsSeven-hundred eleven women underwent nonresectoscopic endometrial ablation at our institution between January 1998 and December 2005. InterventionsBipolar radiofrequency was used in 448 women and thermal balloon ablation in 263 women. Measurements and Main ResultsThe HR cohort had a higher proportion of women with cardiac disease (27.1% vs 6.7%, p < .001) and more women with nongynecologic cancer (12.3% vs 2.9%, Fisher exact test, p < .001). Nonetheless, endometrial ablation had comparable efficacy in both the HR and LR cohorts with 5-year failure rates of 11.7% and 14.8% (p = .659), respectively. Amenorrhea rates were also similar in both cohorts (29.7% vs 27.2%, p = .645). After adjusting for known confounders including age, parity, dysmenorrhea, previous tubal ligation, uterine length, and the type of the procedure, the calculated hazard ratio for failure in the HR cohort was 0.80 (95% confidence interval; 0.31–1.74, p = .607), and the adjusted odds ratio for amenorrhea was 1.27 (95% confidence interval, 0.71–2.20; p = .411). Complications were rare in both groups. The mortality rate in the HR cohort was significantly higher compared with the LR cohort (7.9% vs <1%, p < .001), but this was not related to the ablation procedures. ConclusionFor women who are high anesthetic and surgical risks because of serious underlying comorbidities, nonresectoscopic endometrial ablation can provide minimally invasive, safe, and effective therapy for menorrhagia.

Perceptions of the Use of the Word “Feel” in the Workplace

This study explored attitudes toward the deployment of the word feel in workplace communication. A discourse analysis of this emotionally declarative word across three types of workplace relationships revealed a set of social rules guiding how emotional self-disclosure is managed. Participants outlined how resistance to these rules put social or professional capital at risk but it was deemed necessary in order to maintain or restore equilibrium between well-being and job performance. Although status stratification in the workplace functions to maintain productivity, participants revealed an ongoing tension between performance and authentic emotional expression. The effects of this tension, examined through beliefs about of the word feel, are discussed for its role in workplace well-being.

Effectiveness of trivalent inactivated influenza vaccine in influenza-related hospitalization in children: A case-control study

Influenza is known to be associated with asthma exacerbation but the effectiveness of the trivalent inactivated flu vaccine (TIV) in children, especially children with asthma, in preventing hospitalization is unknown. We assessed the effectiveness of the TIV in all children and especially children with asthma to prevent hospitalization with influenza. We conducted a nested case control study of all pediatric subjects (6 months to 18 years old) who were evaluated at the Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN, who had laboratory-confirmed influenza during each flu season from 1999 to 2006 to evaluate the efficacy of TIV in preventing hospitalization. A case-control analysis was performed with the cases and the controls being the subjects who did and did not required hospitalization with the influenza illness, respectively. There were 261 subjects with laboratory-confirmed influenza from 1996 to 2006. There was an overall trend toward higher rates of hospitalization in subjects who got the TIV when compared with the ones who did not get the TIV (odds ratio [OR], 3.67; CI, 1.6, 8.4). Using the Cochran-Mantel-Haenszel test for asthma status stratification, there was a significant association between hospitalization in asthmatic subjects and TIV (p = 0.001). TIV did not provide any protection against hospitalization in pediatric subjects, especially children with asthma. On the contrary, we found a threefold increased risk of hospitalization in subjects who did get the TIV vaccine. This may be a reflection not only of vaccine effectiveness but also the population of children who are more likely to get the vaccine.

Global Endometrial Ablation Efficacy in Women with High Surgical Risk: A Cohort Study

Study Objective: To evaluate the use of global endometrial ablation (GEA) in women with high anesthetic and surgical risk compared to low risk women based on the American Society of Anesthesia (ASA) physical status stratification.

Do Psychological Characteristics Explain Socioeconomic Stratification of Self-rated Health?

This study evaluated whether negative emotions explain socioeconomic status (SES) stratification of self-rated health (SRH) and whether this putative relation is independent of established SRH determinants. Mood disorders, trait negative affect and health status indices were assessed in a representative cross-sectional survey of 3032 adults in the National Survey of Midlife Development in the United States (MIDUS). Adjustment for health behaviors and health status appreciably reduced SES influence on SRH, but adjustment for negative emotions did not. However, both psychological resources (e.g. social support, extraversion) and negative emotions independently predicted SRH. Detection of SRH determinants was sensitive to binary versus ordinal SRH definitions.

Prevention of hepatocellular carcinoma recurrence with alpha-interferon after liver resection in HCV cirrhosis

Tumor recurrence after resection of hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) can occur early (<2 years) or late (>2 years) as metastases or de novo tumors. Interferon (IFN) has the potential for chemoprevention against hepatitis C virus (HCV)-related cirrhosis. A predetermined group of 150 HCV RNA-positive patients undergoing resection of early- to intermediate-stage HCC was stratified into 80 HCV-pure (hepatitis B anticore antibody [anti-HBc]-negative) and 70 mixed HCV+hepatitis B virus (HBV) (anti-HBc-positive) groups, then randomized to IFN-alpha (3 million units 3 times every week for 48 weeks [n = 76]) versus control (n = 74). The primary end point was recurrence-free survival (RFS); secondary end points were disease-specific and overall survival. Intention-to-treat and subgroup analysis on adherent patients were conducted. Treatment effects on early/late recurrences were assessed using multiple Cox regression analysis. No patient experienced life-threatening adverse events. There were 28 adherent patients (37%). After 45 months of median follow-up, overall survival was 58.5%, and no significant difference in RFS was detectable between the two study arms (24.3% vs. 5.8%; P = .49). HCC recurred in 100 patients (48 IFN-treated, 52 controls), with a 50% reduction in late recurrence rate in the treatment arm. HCC multiplicity and vascular invasion were significantly related to recurrence (P = .01 and .0003). After viral status stratification, while no treatment effect was apparent in the mixed HCV+HBV population and on early recurrences (72 events), there was a significant benefit on late recurrences (28 events) in HCV-pure patients adherent to treatment (HR: 0.3; 95% CI: 0.09-0.9; P = .04). In conclusion, IFN does not affect overall prevention of HCC recurrence after resection, but it may reduce late recurrence in HCV-pure patients receiving effective treatment.

Symbols and Contexts: An Interactionist Approach to the Study of Social Status

This article proposes an interactionist framework for the study of status stratification. This framework returns the focus of status research to how status works, especially emphasizing the symbolic and contextual aspects integral to the concept. By closely examining how status is indicated, how it is employed, and how it is maintained or changed over time, an interactionist approach provides an explanation on how status affects both individual and organizational behavior—an explanation that is currently lacking in status research. In addition, the development of this framework provides an argument against critics of interactionism who question whether this perspective can contribute to the study of social stratification. This article makes evident that status stratification, with its intimate ties to the symbols and contexts, proves to be an area of study ideally suited to the interactionist perspective.