Stature Estimation Equations Research Articles

Stature estimation equations for South Asian skeletons based on DXA scans of contemporary adults.

Stature estimation from the skeleton is a classic anthropological problem, and recent years have seen the proliferation of population-specific regression equations. Many rely on the anatomical reconstruction of stature from archaeological skeletons to derive regression equations based on long bone lengths, but this requires a collection with very good preservation. In some regions, for example, South Asia, typical environmental conditions preclude the sufficient preservation of skeletal remains. Large-scale epidemiological studies that include medical imaging of the skeleton by techniques such as dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry (DXA) offer new potential datasets for developing such equations. We derived estimation equations based on known height and bone lengths measured from DXA scans from the Andhra Pradesh Children and Parents Study (Hyderabad, India). Given debates on the most appropriate regression model to use, multiple methods were compared, and the performance of the equations was tested on a published skeletal dataset of individuals with known stature. The equations have standard errors of estimates and prediction errors similar to those derived using anatomical reconstruction or from cadaveric datasets. As measured by the number of significant differences between true and estimated stature, and the prediction errors, the new equations perform as well as, and generally better than, published equations commonly used on South Asian skeletons or based on Indian cadaveric datasets. This study demonstrates the utility of DXA scans as a data source for developing stature estimation equations and offer a new set of equations for use with South Asian datasets.

Bayesian modeling predicts age and sex are not required for accurate stature estimation from femoral length

Despite the recognized flaws in applying traditional stature estimation equations such as those of Trotter and Gleser (1952) [5] to a contemporary population, there are currently no available alternatives for stature estimation in Australia that address these limitations. Post mortem computed tomography (PMCT) DICOM scans of the left and right femora were acquired from 76 Australian deceased individuals aged 17–76 years for metric analysis. Femoral bicondylar length, femoral epicondylar breadth and anterior–posterior (AP) diameter, medial-lateral (ML) diameter, circumference and cortical area at the femoral midshaft were measured on three-dimensional (3D) models to build statistical models for estimating stature. In addition, Australian individuals aged 16–63 years (n=111) were measured in standing and supine positions to aid in the adjustment of supine stature of deceased individuals utilized in this study to standing stature. The results of this preliminary evaluation strongly indicate that the optimal model for estimating stature includes bicondylar femoral length and epicondylar breadth, that the effect of sex as an independent variable is very low, and there is limited practical benefit in including age in the estimation of stature. Our study indicates that the Australian population sampled represents a small yet significant shift in stature from the original Trotter and Gleser sample. Additionally, in the case of fragmentary remains, it was found that epicondylar breadth and AP diameter had the highest probability of accurate stature estimation in the absence of bicondylar femoral length. As stature forms a significant component of a biological profile and therefore aids in the personal identification of human remains, it is important that forensic anthropologists utilize the most accurate methodologies available. Stature estimation of Australian individuals is therefore achieved with higher accuracy through utilizing the femoral equations proposed in this study.

Estimation of sex and stature using anthropometry of the upper extremity in an Australian population.

Stature and a further 8 anthropometric dimensions were recorded from the arms and hands of a sample of 96 staff and students from the Australian National University and The University of Newcastle, Australia. These dimensions were used to create simple and multiple logistic regression models for sex estimation and simple and multiple linear regression equations for stature estimation of a contemporary Australian population. Overall sex classification accuracies using the models created were comparable to similar studies. The stature estimation models achieved standard errors of estimates (SEE) which were comparable to and in many cases lower than those achieved in similar research. Generic, non sex-specific models achieved similar SEEs and R2 values to the sex-specific models indicating stature may be accurately estimated when sex is unknown.

Stature estimation from percutaneous measurement of tibia length

This study aimed to reconstruct stature among male and female Punjabi community of Malwa region using percutaneous measurement of femur length, for estimating the stature, femur length was recorded on each subject using the standard measurement techniques. The data composed of 400 Punjabi subjects within the age range of 20–25 years. Multiplication factors and linear regression equations for stature estimation were determined produced using the above mentioned variables.

Estimation of stature From skull Dimensions of southern Kerala Population−An Autopsy Study

The present study is aimed to help in identification of an individual by understanding the variations in cranial dimensions and to propose population and gender specific regression equations for stature estimation using the linear dimensions of the cranium. The study was conducted on 200 dead bodies (100 males and 100 females) belonging to southern Kerala region. skull breadth, length and skull height were utilised for estimation of stature. All the parameters showed positive correlation with stature with skull height for males having the highest correlation coefficient. Linear regression equation for males and females were derived separately.

Derivation of Regression Equations for Stature Reconstruction from Digit Lengths of Nigerian Medical Students in University of Lagos

Identification of an individual using stature is of great significance in forensic practice. With the increasing frequency of natural and man-influenced disasters, it has become imperative for forensic anthropologists to establish population-specific forensic reference standards. This study aimed to derive predictive equations for stature estimation using five digit lengths. A sample of 230 medical students (100 males and 130 females) of Nigerian parentage, aged 18 to 36 years was recruited for this research. Stature and digit lengths were measured following standard procedures, followed by statistical analysis using SPSS (Version 20 Chicago Inc). Results of descriptive showed average stature of 176.36 ± 8.13cm, 164.38 ± 6.62cm and 169.59 ± 8.79cm for males, females and pooled sample respectively. Sexual dimorphism was observed to be statistically significant (P 99% . Digits correlation with stature from this study may be of great relevance in human identification. Keywords: Forensic Sciences; Human Identification; Stature; Digits; Nigerians.

Adult stature estimation from radiographically determined metatarsal length in Egyptian population

Abstract Background Estimation of the stature might be critical in the identification of skeletal remains. Usually, the small bones found among human remains are not only the most numerous, but also the best-preserved parts. Objective The primary aim of this work is to determine whether metatarsals can be used for the estimation of adult stature in an Egyptian population using radiologically determined metatarsal lengths and to propose regression equations and test the formulae for determining adult stature. Subjects and methods The 1st and 2nd metatarsals of the left foot of the 220 healthy adult participants were assessed by plain X-ray in a dorso-plantar position utilizing a digital radiography machine commonly used in hospitals. The measurements were obtained by default program on console of the machine that offers manipulation and measurements on the obtained images. Results The study clearly illustrated that the 1st metatarsal maximum length (M1) in males was the most noteworthy correlation with the true stature. The derived regression equation is as per the following: S = 851.52 + 12.26 M1, R = 0.8904 M1. Our findings in the current study were more accurate when comparing our study statistical findings with the results of other population groups. Conclusion the regression equations for stature estimation obtained in our study may be utilized for the identification of stature of skeletons among adult Egyptians from medicolegal point of view.

Stature estimation using measurements of the cranium for populations in the United States

Stature estimation is an important component of the biological profile. Human crania are sometimes recovered in the absence of other skeletal material in forensic casework, and stature estimation equations using cranial measurements have not been developed for populations in the United States. Both simple and multiple regression equations for estimating stature were developed from standard cranial measurements taken from both a cranial CT dataset and the Forensic Data Bank, and the resulting equations were tested using a separate dataset. A weak to moderate correlation with stature was found for some of the measurements tested. Tests of the sex- and ancestry-specific equations and pooled sex equations produced accurate estimated stature ranges for most of the individuals in the test dataset, but large 95% confidence intervals (±14–16cm) for these equations can produce only an imprecise estimated stature range for an unidentified individual. Pooled ancestry equations also produced accurate estimated stature ranges for many of the individuals in the test dataset, but with even larger 95% confidence intervals (±18–20cm). The results of this study indicate that stature can be estimated using cranial measurements, but the resulting 95% confidence intervals produce stature ranges that are too broad to use in most forensic casework.

Estimation of stature from radiographic measurement of foot dimensions: Truncated foot length may be more reliable than full foot length

Foot length has been shown to be a reliable dimension for estimation of stature. However, phalanges of the foot are very small bones and their length may not be proportional to person's stature. Thus, we hypothesized that foot length measured excluding the phalanges, the truncated foot length, may be more reliable in stature estimation than full foot length. This study, therefore, aimed at comparing the accuracy of the regression equations derived from the truncated foot length and the full foot length. The study recruited a sample of 32 young adults (16 males and 16 females) aged from 20 to 35 years. Lateral radiographs of the right feet were obtained for each subject in a bilateral standing position while maintaining equal weight on both feet. Standing height of the participants was measured with a stadiometer. Truncated foot length and full foot length were measured on the lateral radiographs of the foot. Independent t-test was used to check for mean differences in the dimensions between genders. Linear regression analysis was used to determine the equations for stature estimation. Intra and inter-observer reliability were calculated from four precision estimates: absolute technical error of measurement (aTEM), relative technical error of measurement (rTEM), coefficient of reliability (Rr) and coefficient of variation (Cv). All the dimensions measured were significantly larger in males than females. Linear regression equations were derived for estimation of stature using both the truncated foot length and full foot length. The regression equations derived from truncated foot length have larger correlation coefficient, coefficient of determination, adjusted coefficient of determination as well as smaller standard error of estimation than those derived from full foot length. All the precision estimates showed that the measurement errors are within acceptable limits. This study suggests that even if the full foot length is available, excluding the phalanges may give more accurate stature estimation.

Stature estimation from the femur and tibia in Black South African sub-adults

Stature estimation can play a role in the positive identification of unknown individuals and as such it is routinely assessed during the examination of adult remains. Unfortunately, this is not a standard procedure when dealing with sub-adult remains due to the general lack of standard procedures for the estimation of sub-adult stature. The aim of this study was therefore to derive regression equations for the estimation of stature in black South African sub-adults. Fifty nine black South African sub-adult males and females, aged 10–17 years, voluntarily participated in the study by undergoing a full body Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) scan. Living stature was measured with a stadiometer and the maximum and diaphyseal lengths of the femur and tibia were measured from the MRI scans using the image processing software OsiriX. Pearson’s correlation coefficients and linear least square regression analyses were used to assess the correlations between living stature and the measurements and to generate sub-adult stature estimation equations for males, females and a combined sex sample. Measurements of the femur, tibia and the combined measures thereof showed strong statistically significant positive correlations with living stature, while the obtained regression equations were characterized by low standard error of estimates. The strong correlations and low standard error of estimates are comparable to stature estimation models reported for Black South African adults and therefore these variables can be considered good estimators of sub-adult stature which will contribute valuable information to the biological profile of unidentified sub-adult skeletal remains.

Estimation of stature in archaeological human skeletal remains from Britain.

For archaeological populations of northwest European origin, the Trotter and Gleser () "White" equations are generally used to estimate stature from long-bone length. The aim of this research is to investigate the reliability of these formulae for this purpose. Stature estimated using the Trotter and Gleser formulae was evaluated by comparing estimates with anatomically reconstructed stature in adult skeletons (N = 40) from Mediaeval England. Performance of the Trotter and Gleser equations based on femur length was compared (using standard error of the estimate (SEE) and mean percentage error (%error)) with others that have been derived from archaeological and recent European ancestry populations. Performance of ordinary least squares (OLS) and reduced major axis (RMA) versions of some of the equations was also evaluated. 14 male and 11 female femoral equations were investigated. For females, the original (OLS) Trotter and Gleser "White" equations produced the lowest SEE and %error. For the males, the most reliable was the RMA version of the Trotter and Gleser "White" WWII equation; the Trotter and Gleser equations based on the Korean War dead performed poorly. In an archaeological target population, stature estimation equations devised using archaeological reference populations from a similar ecogeographic zone did not perform better than those based on recent populations. There was no indication that either the RMA or OLS approach produced consistently lower SEE and %error, but the former more faithfully represented the variation in anatomically reconstructed stature present in the study group.

A Procedure for Calculating the Vertical Space Height of the Sacrum When Determining Skeletal Height for Use in the Anatomical Method of Adult Stature Estimation.

Estimating stature from skeletonized remains is one of the essential parameters in the development of a biological profile. A new procedure for determining skeletal height (SKH) incorporating the vertical space height (VSH) from the anterior margin of the sacral promontory to the superior margins of the acetabulae for use in the anatomical method of stature estimation is introduced. Regression equations for stature estimation were generated from measurements of 38 American males of European ancestry from the William M. Bass Donated Skeletal Collection. The modification to the procedure results in a SKH that is highly correlated with stature (r = 0.925-0.948). Stature estimates have low standard errors of the estimate ranging from 21.79 to 25.95 mm, biases from to 0.50 to 0.94 mm, and accuracy rates from 17.71 mm to 19.45 mm. The procedure for determining the VSH, which replaces "S1 height" in traditional anatomical method models, is a key improvement to the method.

Developing Korean-specific equations of stature estimation

This study aims to develop Korean-specific equations for stature estimation and compare their performance to existing techniques. Due to a lack of appropriate reference samples in Korea, equations were generated using a hybrid method on 113 Korean unknown skeletons. In this approach, estimates using the anatomical method [1] were regarded as actual stature. Results revealed that new equations produced more accurate and precise estimates than previous techniques. In addition, due to consistent body proportions of Korean populations through time and space, new equations are applicable to Korean skeletons regardless of their temporal and geographic origins. For obtaining statures at death, particularly in a forensic context, an age correction factor, 0.0426cm/year, should be applied.

Caveats in Using Trotter and Gleser's (1958) Asian Equations for Stature Estimation

Trotter and Gleser’s (1958) Asian equations have most frequently been used for stature estimation of Korean skeletal remains. However, limitations or caveats in using those equations have rarely been argued. This study reviews five issues frequently overlooked in applying the equations and interpreting the outcomes. First, Trotter and Gleser (1958) multiply the standard errors by 2 to obtain the 95% prediction interval (PI). However, there is discrepancy between their calculation and actual PIs, and thus correct method for PI calculation is recommended. Secondly, given the uncertainty about the tibia length measurement, there is a possibility that the tibia-related equations yield biased estimates. Thirdly, since a mathematical error was incorporated in the development process of the combined equations, caution should be taken. Fourthly, extrapolation may cause additional unexpected error in applying regression equations. Therefore, it is necessary to check if a target sample falls within the reference sample range prior to using the equations. Lastly, applying Trotter and Gleser’s (1958) equations to female samples should be avoided because they produce highly biased estimates. The issues discussed in this study will contribute to reducing potential errors associated with application of these equations, and eventually enhancing accuracy of the final stature estimates. If errors are anticipated but unavoidable, discussions about the potential errors should be made to minimize misunderstanding about the outcomes.

STATURE ESTIMATION FROM PARTIAL MEASUREMENTS AND MAXIMUM LENGTH OF UPPER LIMB BONES IN KOREANS

The aim of this study was to develop regression equations for stature estimation using the upper limb bone in Korean individuals. A total of 105 samples (55 men and 50 women) obtained from cadavers were used for developing equations. Bones with obvious pathologies or healed fractures were excluded. The coefficient of determination (r2) of the variables was slightly higher in men than in women. Ulna length (MLU) in both sexes was found to have the highest r2 value. Moreover, the regression equation using a stepwise analysis in a sample of combined sex using partial segments was based on MLR (Maximum length of the radius), MLH (Maximum length of the humerus) and TDHH (Transverse diameter of the humeral head) (r2 = 0.949). This method can be used to estimate stature when unidentified human bones are found at excavation sites.

On the relationship between stature and anthropometric measurements of lumbar vertebrae

Stature estimation is important for identifying human remains. Analysis of body parts has become an important forensic tool during global operations in the context of cases in which human remains have been dismembered, mutilated or decomposed. However, unless almost the full skeleton or at least a long bone of the lower limb is available, accuracy is still limited to approximate body height. Especially with respect to single vertebral measurements, only a rough prediction is possible. Due to their complex geometry, vertebral measurements are possible at various locations. Nine locations have been considered in this study. Regression equations for stature estimation using lumbar vertebral geometry from computed tomography scans have been evaluated to identify the measurement which gives the most reliable body height estimation. The study group comprised a representative sample of a German metropolitan male population (42 autopsied individuals). Comparing the influence of various vertebral geometry measurements with body height resulted in a coefficient of correlation (R) of 0.19–0.53 and a 95% confidence interval (CI) of ±11.6 up to ±13.1cm.The largest correlation with a single vertebral measurement was achieved with the central height of the vertebral body of L2 as predictor; the standard error (SE) of the estimate was 5.9cm. Using models from CT scans appeared superior to current invasive procedures that use direct measurements of the vertebral body, in terms of reproducibility and time efficiency. For fragmented non-skeletonized human bodies, height prediction based on an all-virtual model of the vertebrae is possible. However, the regression coefficient may be similar to classic caliper measurements that prove easier if skeletonized bones are available.

Stature estimation based on measurements of the sternal medullary cavity using multidetector computed tomography images of Japanese cadavers

Stature estimation using a skeleton is important for the medicolegal investigation of unidentified human remains. The aims of this study were to identify a correlation between stature and measurements of the sternal medullary cavity using multidetector computed tomography (MDCT) and derive regression equations for stature estimation in the Japanese population. Measurements were conducted on 215 Japanese subjects (107 males, 108 females) who underwent postmortem computed tomography with subsequent forensic autopsy between May 2012 and January 2014. For assessment, MDCT cross-sections through the mid-point of the first costal facets were chosen. The length of a rising diagonal stroke from the bottom left to the top right of the sternal medullary cavity (RS) and the length of a falling diagonal stroke from top left to bottom right of the sternal medullary cavity (FS) were measured. Statistical analyses indicated that both RS and FS were positively correlated with stature regardless of sex. The correlations were stronger for males than for females. The correlation coefficients for RS were higher than those for FS, and standard errors of estimation calculated by regression analysis using RS were lower than those using FS regardless of sex. Measurement of the sternal medullary cavity using MDCT images may be a potentially useful tool for stature estimation, particularly in cases where better predictors such as long bones are not available.

Stature estimation based on radial and ulnar lengths using three-dimensional images from multidetector computed tomography in a Japanese population

The aim of our study was to evaluate correlations between cadaver stature (CS) and radial and ulnar lengths based on three-dimensional (3D) computed tomography (CT) images, and to develop modern regression equations for estimating CS in a Japanese population. Measurements were performed on 245 Japanese subjects (123 males and 122 females) who underwent postmortem CT between May 2011 and December 2013. A 3D reconstructed image was used for assessment. The linear distances of the left radial (LR) and right radial (RR) lengths were measured as a straight-line distance from the most anteroproximal point of the head to the most distal end of the styloid process. The linear distances of the left ulnar (LU) and right ulnar (RU) lengths were measured as a straight-line distance from the most posteroproximal point of the olecranon to the most distal end of the styloid process. The correlation between CS and each parameter (LR, LU, RR, and RU) was assessed using Pearson product-moment correlation coefficients and regression analysis was performed for stature estimation. There were significant correlations between CS and each parameter regardless of sex, indicating that the radial and ulnar lengths measured on 3D CT images can be predictive of stature estimation. Simple regression equations for stature estimation calculated from LR provided the lowest standard error of estimation (SEE) (all subjects, SEE=4.18 cm; males, SEE=4.09 cm; females, SEE=4.21 cm). In addition, multiple regression equations were more accurate and reliable than the single linear regression equations.

Stature estimation from partial measurements and maximum length of lower limb bones in Koreans

The aim of this study was to develop regression equations for stature estimation using the lower limb bone in Korean individuals. A total of 105 samples (55 men and 50 women) obtained from cadavers were used for developing equations. Bones with obvious pathologies or healed fractures were excluded. The coefficient of determination (r2) of the variables was generally higher in men than in women. Femur length (MLF) in men and the distance from most the proximal point of the intercondylar fossa to the midpoint of the lesser trochanter (IFLM) in women, were found to have the highest r2 value. Moreover, the regression equation using a stepwise analysis in a sample of combined sex using partial segments was based on IFGP (distance from the most proximal point of the intercondylar fossa to the most proximal point of the greater trochanter) and EBF (epicondylar breadth of the femur) (r2=0.760). This method can be used to estimate stature when unidentified human bones are found at excavation sites.

A Study of Estimation of Stature from Footprint Length

Identification of an individual is the mainstay in forensic investigations. Estimation of individual's stature is an important parameter for identifying a person as it is an inherent characteristic. Examination of footprint provides important evidence in a crime scene investigation as it helps in estimation of stature of a culprit and in mass disasters where only foot is available. The present study was carried out to know the relationship between footprint length and stature in individuals hailing from Hyderabad Karnataka region and to know if there is any difference in the stature estimated by right and left footprint lengths in both the sexes. Total of 200 students (100 males and 100 females) studying in MRMC, Gulbarga were included in the study. The length of the footprint and the height of each student are measured. A positive and significant correlation between the stature and right footprint length and left footprint length was observed in both the sexes. Regression equations for stature estimation were formulated using right and left footprint length separately in both the sexes. There is no statistically significant difference in the stature estimated by right and left footprint length in both the sexes. The results indicate that footprint length provides an important means in estimating the stature of an unknown individual.