Static Characterization Research Articles

The Use of Reservoir Simulation in Deterministic Proved-Reserves Estimation

Summary This paper proposes an approach for assessing a reservoir-simulation model for use in estimating reserves. A simulation model can integrate complex static data, the physical description of displacement processes, production constraints, and schedules. Hence, it can provide important information for business decisions and reserves estimation. Confidence in simulation predictions depends on the strength of evidence for the input data, quality control of the model, robustness of the history match, and whether there is independent evidence supporting predictions. We explain the principles for evaluating a simulation model and propose requirements for simulation predictions to be considered as proved reserves. This involves evaluation against different strands of evidence, such as static and dynamic characterization, wells and facilities description, reservoir performance, and analogs. Simulation models are often built to support business decisions by use of the best technical estimates for inputs. There can be instances where a simulation model may be reasonable and reliable but it only represents a “best technical” outcome. There may not be sufficient evidence to count the whole predicted recovery as proved reserves. We propose how such a model may be modified to also provide proved-reserves estimates. The approach can be used with different available data and at different stages of field life. It is illustrated through a case study that shows how the principles may be applied.

Structural Evolution of Spinel Iron Oxide during Nonequilibrium Lithiation

Increasing demand of sustainable energy utilization boosts the development of high performance energy storage technologies in particular lithium-ion batteries [1]. Transition metal oxides have attracted tremendous attention as promising electrode materials for lithium-ion batteries due to their abilities to deliver much higher specific capacities at a relatively inexpensive cost [2]. For structural considerations, it is widely acknowledged that the ideal layered or spinel structures are crucial for reversible lithium insertion and extraction as they can provide space for efficient ionic transportation while maintain good stability of oxygen-metal frameworks [3]. It is also well known for many metal oxides that phase conversion reactions can occur upon a deep lithium insertion, which will increase the overall battery capacity along with severe structure modifications such as collapsing single-crystalline particles into small nanoparticle composites [1, 2]. Specifically for spinel iron oxide (Fe3O4 or magnetite), multiple phase transformation along with structure changes have been previously found by static characterizations after complete relaxation from electrochemical reactions [4, 5]. However, real batteries do not operate under true equilibrium conditions, which may make actual phase transitions carry out in different and complicated ways. Thus, it is of great importance to understand the structural evolution throughout a full lithiation process so as to precisely regulate the lithiated phases with desired structures for future design and applications of these electrode materials. For such purposes, we need to utilize in situ transmission electron microscopy (TEM) and spectroscopy [6], which have sufficient spatial resolution and chemical detectability to obtain direct correlations between microstructure and electrochemistry. In this work, we implement the in situ dry-cell setup for real-time observation of electrochemical lithiation inside a TEM (JEOL 2100F operated at 200 kV), where the composite electrode containing Fe3O4 nanocrystals and the amorphous carbon support will be lithiated, while extra side reactions are eliminated with no participation of liquid electrolyte [6]. Using a strain-sensitive scanning transmission electron microscopy (STEM) approach, we were able to observe the phase changes within a single Fe3O4 nanocrystal, and clearly differentiate two reaction steps: 1) lithium intercalation with structural change from spinel to rocksalt by displacing the Fe cations from tetragonal 8a sites to the nearby octahedral 16c sites; and 2) the subsequent conversion to form composites of ultrafine Fe nanoparticles along with amorphous Li2O. With real-time observation, we found that these two steps are largely overlapped due to the kinetic effects under nonequilibrium electrochemical conditions. The results are consistent with synchrotron x-ray diffraction and well explained by calculations using both first-principle DFT and phase-field theory. Our findings provide insights into understanding lithiation mechanisms in spinel structures, and also show implications for improving performance in future design of battery electrodes.

Control of Ferromagnetic Resonance Frequency and Frequency Linewidth by Electrical Fields in FeCo/[Pb(Mg1/3Nb2/3)O3]0.68-[PbTiO3]0.32(011) Heterostructures

We report our detailed investigation of the electrical tuning of the ferromagnetic resonance frequency and frequency linewidth in multiferroic heterostructures consisting of FeCo thin films grown onto [Pb(Mg1/3Nb2/3) O3]0.68-[PbTiO3]0.32 (PMN–PT) substrates with NiFe underlayers. Our study shows that the electrical tuning range of both ferromagnetic resonance frequency and frequency linewidth in this FeCo/PMN-PT heterostructure can be very large. Specifically, the resonance frequency can be tuned from 1.8 GHz to 10.3 GHz, and the frequency linewidth can be changed from 1.6 GHz to 7.3 GHz. The electrical tuning of these microwave properties is discussed in conjunction with the result from the static magnetic characterization and is explained based on the strain-driven magnetoelectric heterostructured effect.

A TIPS-TPDO-tetraCN-Based n-Type Organic Field-Effect Transistor with a Cross-linked PMMA Polymer Gate Dielectric.

Recent improvement in the performance of the n-type organic semiconductors as well as thin gate dielectrics based on cross-linked polymers offers new opportunities to develop high-performance low-voltage n-type OFETs suitable for organic complementary circuits. Using TIPS-tetracyanotriphenodioxazine (TIPS-TPDO-tetraCN) and cross-linked poly(methyl methacrylate) (c-PMMA), respectively as n-type organic semiconductor and gate dielectric, linear regime field-effect mobility (1.8 ± 0.2) × 10(-2) cm(2) V(-1)s(-1), small spatial standard deviation of threshold voltage (∼0.1 V), and operating voltage less than 3 V are attainable with the same device structure and contact materials used commonly for p-type OFETs. Through comparative static and dynamic characterizations of c-PMMA and PMMA gate dielectrics, it is shown that both smaller thickness and larger relative permittivity of c-PMMA contributes to reduced operating voltage. Furthermore, negligible hysteresis brings evidence to small trap states in the semiconductor near gate dielectric of the n-type OFETs with c-PMMA. The use of TIPS-TPDO-tetraCN and c-PMMA is fully compatible with polyethylene terephthalate substrate, giving promise to various flexible applications.

SiC Power Switches Evaluation for Space Applications Requirements

We have evaluated several SiC power switches available on the market, by defining and performing a global test campaign oriented to Space applications requirements, in order to define their main benefits but also the limits of current SiC technology. This allowed to identify a number of target applications where SiC could be used as a technology push for a new generation of space electronics units. Silicon devices qualified for space systems above 600V for the switches and 1200V for the rectifiers are not available due to performances limitations of Si. Among the typical static and dynamic characterization, we have performed temperature and power stress and HTRB tests. More remarkably, we have carried out a first batch of total dose and heavy ions radiation experiments on 3 types of power switches: normally-on JFET, normally-off JFET and power MOSFET. Due to its higher stability and radiation hardness, the normally-on JFET is today the more adequate and reliable switch for the space applications.

Single-Chain Magnets Based on Octacyanotungstate with the Highest Energy Barriers for Cyanide Compounds.

By introducing large counter cations as the spacer, two isolated 3, 3-ladder compounds, (Ph4P)[CoII(3-Mepy)2.7(H2O)0.3WV(CN)8]·0.6H2O (1) and (Ph4As)[CoII(3-Mepy)3WV(CN)8] (2, 3-Mepy = 3-methylpyridine), were synthesized and characterized. Static and dynamic magnetic characterizations reveal that compounds 1 and 2 both behave as the single-chain magnets (SCMs) with very high energy barriers: 252(9) K for 1 and 224(7) K for 2, respectively. These two compounds display the highest relaxation barriers for cyano-bridged SCMs and are preceded only by two cobalt(II)-radical compounds among all SCMs. Meanwhile, a large coercive field of 26.2 kOe (1) and 22.6 kOe (2) were observed at 1.8 K.

Design of a magnetic vibration absorber with tunable stiffnesses

The design and characterisation of a magnetic vibration absorber (MVA), completely relying on magnetic forces, is addressed. A distinctive feature of the absorber is the ability of tuning the linear stiffness together with the nonlinear cubic and quintic stiffnesses by means of repulsive magnets located in the axis of the main vibrating magnetic mass, together with a set of corrective magnets located off the main axis. The tuning methodology is passive and relies only on three geometrical parameters. Consequently the MVA can be adjusted to design either a nonlinear tuned vibration absorber (NLTVA), a nonlinear energy sink (NES), or a bi-stable absorber with negative linear stiffness. The expressions of the stiffnesses are given from a multipole expansion of the magnetic fields of repulsive and corrective magnets. A complete static and dynamic characterisation is performed, showing the robustness of the modelling together with the ability of the MVA to work properly in different vibratory regimes, thus making it a suitable candidate for passive vibration mitigation in a wide variety of contexts.

Micro-optofluidic switch realized by 3D printing technology

This paper presents a PDMS micro-optofluidic chip that allows a laser beam to be driven directly toward a two-phase flow stream in a micro-channel while at the same time automatically, detecting the slug’s passage and stirring the laser light, without the use of any external optical devices. When the laser beam interacts with the microfluidic flow, depending on the fluid in the channel and the laser angle of incidence, a different signal level is detected. So a continuous air–water segmented flow will generate a signal that switches between two values. The device consists of a T-junction, which generates the two-phase flow, and three optical fiber insertions, which drive the input laser beam toward a selected area of the micro-channel and detects the flow stream. Three micro-channel sections of different widths were considered: 130, 250, 420 μm and the performance of the models was obtained by comparing ray-tracing simulations. The master of the device has been realized by 3D printing technology and a protocol which realizes the PDMS chip is presented. The static and dynamic characterizations, considering both single flows and two-phase flows, were carried out, and in spite of the device’s design simplicity, the sensitivity of the system to capture changes in the segmented flows and to stir the laser light in different directions was fully confirmed. The experimental tests show the possibility of obtaining satisfactory results with channel diameters in the order of 200 μm.

Interacting Superparamagnetic Iron(II) Oxide Nanoparticles: Synthesis and Characterization in Ionic Liquids.

Interacting superparamagnetic iron(II) oxide nanoparticles (NPs) with sizes of 5.3 ± 1.6 nm were prepared by simple decomposition of [Fe(COT)2] (COT = 1,3,5,7-cyclooctatetraene) with 5 bar of H2 in 1-n-butyl-3-methylimidazolium bis(trifluoromethanesulfonyl)imide (BMI·NTf2) ionic liquid (IL). The static and dynamic magnetic characterization revealed a superparamagnetic behavior with weak dipolar interactions of these NPs. In situ structural studies by X-ray absorption spectroscopy demonstrated that they consist of nanostructured FeO. This approach is an appropriate method to prepare and stabilize nanostructured FeO particles, where the presence of an IL proved to be fundamental to suppress the aggregation and usual overoxidation of the FeO NPs.

Static sublimation purification process and characterization of LiZnAs semiconductor material

Refinement of the class AIBIICV materials continue as a candidate for solid-state neutron detectors. Such a device would have greater efficiency, in a compact form, than present day gas-filled 3He and 10BF3 detectors. The 6Li(n,t)4He reaction yields a total Q value of 4.78MeV, larger than 10B, and easily identified above background radiations. Hence, devices composed of either natural Li (nominally 7.5% 6Li) or enriched 6Li (usually 95% 6Li) may provide a semiconductor material for compact high efficiency neutron detectors. A sub-branch of the III–V semiconductors, the filled tetrahedral compounds, AIBIICV, known as Nowotny–Juza compounds, are known for their desirable cubic crystal structure. Starting material was synthesized by equimolar portions of Li, Zn, and As sealed under vacuum (10−6Torr) in quartz ampoules with a boron nitride lining, and reacted in a compounding furnace [1]. The synthesized material showed signs of high impurity levels from material and electrical property characterization. In the present work, a static vacuum sublimation of synthesized LiZnAs loaded in a quartz vessel was performed to help purify the synthesized material. The chemical composition of the sublimed material and remains material was confirmed by Inductively Coupled Plasma Optical Emission Spectroscopy (ICP-OES). Lithium was not detected in the sublimed material, however, near stoichiometric amounts of each constituent element were found in the remains material for LiZnAs. X-ray diffraction phase identification scans of the remains material and sublimed material were compared, and further indicated the impurity materials were removed from the synthesized materials. The remaining powder post the sublimation process showed characteristics of a higher purity ternary compound.

PC70BM n-type Thin Film Transistors: Influence of HMDS Deposition Temperature on the Devices Properties

This study investigates the influence of the deposition temperature of hexamethyldisilazane (HMDS) on the performances of organic thin film transistors (OTFTs) using the [6,6]-phenyl-C71-butyric acid methyl ester (PC70BM) as semiconductor. N-type OTFTs have been fabricated using this fullerene derivative, deposited from solution by drop casting technique on HMDS self-assembled monolayer (SAM) deposited at three different temperatures, 7°C, 25°C and 60°C, in order to evaluate the influence of these deposition conditions on the morphology of PC70BM films and on the electrical responses of fullerene derivative-based OTFTs.The effect of the treatments of the surfaces was observed through contact angle measurements. AFM imaging of the deposited material has been used to analyse its structure and morphology. The transistors performances have been evaluated through I vs. V static characterization and parameters extraction.Contact angle vs. HMDS deposition temperature shows the minimum value at 60°C, instead here field effect mobility presents a maximum. It has been observed that the lower hydrophobicity of the surface of the SAM induces the formation of more homogeneous surface of the PC70BM film, resulting in an increase of the OTFTs performances.

Static and dynamic electronic characterization of organic monolayers grafted on a silicon surface.

Organic layers chemically grafted on silicon offer excellent interfaces that may open up the way for new organic-inorganic hybrid nanoelectronic devices. However, technological achievements rely on the precise electronic characterization of such organic layers. We have prepared ordered grafted organic monolayers (GOMs) on Si(111), sometimes termed self-assembled monolayers (SAMs), by a hydrosilylation reaction with either a 7-carbon or an 11-carbon alkyl chain, with further modification to obtain amine-terminated surfaces. X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) is used to determine the band bending (∼ 0.3 eV), and ultraviolet photoelectron spectroscopy (UPS) to measure the work function (∼ 3.4 eV) and the HOMO edge. Scanning tunneling microscopy (STM) confirms that the GOM surface is clean and smooth. Finally, conductive AFM is used to measure electron transport through the monolayer and to identify transition between the tunneling and the field emission regimes. These organic monolayers offer a promising alternative to silicon dioxide thin films for fabricating metal-insulator-semiconductor (MIS) junctions. We show that gold nanoparticles can be covalently attached to mimic metallic nano-electrodes and that the electrical quality of the GOMs is completely preserved in the process.

Fatigue strength analysis of welded joints using an experimental approach based on static characterization tests

Fatigue strength analysis of welded joints using an experimental approach based on static characterization tests

Identification of Barriers and Productive Zones Using Reservoir Characterization

The most common complication faced by petroleum engineers is the description of a reservoir, both accurately and efficiently. Inadequate and insufficient reservoir characterization lead most enhanced oil recovery and secondary recovery projects to fail and also makes it difficult to deal with heterogonous reservoir. An accurate description of a reservoir is vital to the reservoir management and achieving maximum oil recovery. Reservoir characterization plays a very important role in descripting the storage and flow capacity of a reservoir and also plays a decisive role in reservoir simulation. The main objective of this research is to identify reservoir barriers and productive zone using reservoir characterization, in this study some of the most useful methods such as Flow Zone Indicator (FZI), Discrete Rock Type (DRT), Winland R35 methods were applied to 4 different wells to identify the rock types and flow units developing a static reservoir characterization model. To achieve the objective of this research the static model is transformed into a dynamic model by introducing graphical method such as stratigraphic flow profile (SFP), stratigraphic modified Lorenz plot (SMLP) and modified Lorenz plot (MLP) to easily quantify reservoir flow units based on physical structure, storage capacity, flow capacity, rock type and reservoir process speed. The physical structure permits the flow units to be interpreted in a stratigraphic model arrangement, determining well-to-well correlation schemes; the main aim of understanding the flow unit's characterizations is to identify the barriers, speed zones and baffles.

Phase-sensitive fiber-based parametric all-optical switch.

We experimentally demonstrate, for the first time, an all-optical switch in a phase-sensitive fiber optic parametric amplifier operated in saturation. We study the effect of phase variation of the signal and idler waves on the pump power depletion. By changing the phase of a 0.9 mW signal/idler pair wave by π/2 rad, a pump power extinction ratio of 30.4 dB is achieved. Static and dynamic characterizations are also performed and time domain results presented.

Setting up a nanolab inside a transmission electron microscope for two-dimensional materials research

Abstract

Gender, Rhetoric and Recognition: Characterizing Jesus and (Re)defining Masculinity in the Gospel of John

Scholars studying the characters of John’s gospel often note the flat or static quality of Jesus’ character. Recently, Colleen M. Conway has investigated Jesus’ static characterization in light of Greco-Roman norms of masculinity, arguing that John’s gospel presents an especially masculine Christology. This article nuances Conway’s reading by digging more deeply into Jesus’ characterization by means of common-places (τόποι) used to formulate gender in classical rhetorical performances and in ancient literary genres similar to the Gospel of John. Making use of the instability inherent to gender, the Gospel of John incorporates a number of feminine elements in its characterization of Jesus alongside the masculine elements, thus de-stabilizing the masculine narratives of its ancient Mediterranean context. Having absolutized Jesus’ identity in its prologue as eternal and entirely consistent with God’s will, the gospel redefines masculinity in a way that casts ‘feminine’ penetrability as a permanent and crucial indicator of God’s identity.

108 Gbit/s Plasmonic Mach–Zehnder Modulator with > 70-GHz Electrical Bandwidth

We report on high-extinction-ratio, ultrafast plasmonic Mach-Zehnder modulators. We demonstrate data modulation at line rates up to 72 Gbit/s (BPSK) and 108 Gbit/s (4-ASK). The driving voltages are U <sub xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink">d</sub> = 4 and 2.5 V <sub xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink">p</sub> for 12.5 and 25 μm short devices, respectively. The frequency response shows no bandwidth limitations up to 70 GHz. Static characterizations indicate extinction ratios > 25 dB.

Design and Fabrication of a Long-Arm Comb-Drive Rotary Actuator With Externally Mounted Mirror for Optical Applications

In this paper, we present the design, fabrication, and characterization of a long-arm comb-drive actuator with an externally mounted large mirror for optical applications. The provision for an externally mounted mirror can be useful for many optical applications, which require large and high-quality reflecting surfaces. The angular stretch of the comb fingers at the far end is kept smaller than those near the anchor point. This structural feature allows the design of actuator arm lengths of over 5 mm. The truss of the actuator is designed carefully to support the large movable arm. An analytical model for the electrostatic forces in the actuator was developed, and detailed analyses for side instability and resonance frequency were performed. The complete fabrication process involving bulk micromachining of silicon-on-insulator (SOI) wafer using a two-mask process is described. A procedure for efficient mounting of the mirror utilizing die bonder, vacuum tip, and silver epoxy is demonstrated. Static characterization measurements show that the actuator can achieve a rotational angle of 3° with an applied voltage of 130 V. A resonance frequency of $\sim 246$ Hz for a mirror size of $2~\textrm {mm} \times 100~\mu \textrm {m} \times 1$ mm was determined by optical characterization; this closely matches with the simulation results and the analytical model. [2014-0318]

Monolithic transparent 3D dielectrophoretic micro-actuator fabricated by femtosecond laser

We demonstrate a three-dimensional (3D) monolithic micro-actuator fabricated by non-ablative femtosecond laser micromachining and subsequent chemical etching. The actuating principle is based on dielectrophoresis. An analytical modeling of this actuation scheme is conducted, which is capable of performance prediction, parameter optimization and instability analysis. Static and dynamic characterizations are experimentally verified. An actuation range of 30 μm is well attainable; resonances are captured with an evaluated quality factor of 40 (measured in air) and a bandwidth of 5 Hz for the primary vertical resonance of 200 Hz. A settling time of 200 ms in transient response indicates the damping properties of such actuation scheme. This actuation principle suppresses the need for electrodes on the mobile, non-conductive component and is particularly interesting for moving transparent elements. Thanks to the flexibility of the manufacturing process, it can be coupled to other functionalities within monolithic transparent micro-electro-mechanical systems (MEMS) for applications like tunable optical couplers.