Northeast Indian State Research Articles

Significance of aegirine‐bearing metabasic rocks in the metamorphic evolution of the Nagaland Accretionary Prism, northeast India

The ophiolite belt of Nagaland–Manipur states in Northeast India represents a segment of the ocean floor and upper mantle following eastward convergence of the Indian Plate with the Myanmar (Burmese) microplate during the Mesozoic. A variety of high‐pressure metamorphic assemblages have been noted in the metabasics and metacherts from the Phanerozoic ophiolite belt in the central part of the Naga Hills, which constitute the Nagaland Accretionary Prism. The metabasics are represented by very low‐grade assemblages of zeolite, prehnite‐pumpellyite, greenschists, and high‐pressure glaucophane schist and eclogite. We report the occurrence of aegirine‐bearing metabasic rocks, previously not recorded in the region. The metabasics are strongly fractionated and show chemical affinity with low‐K oceanic tholeiite. They are derived from a basic protolith of depleted mantle composition (viz. MORB). Pseudosection modelling reveals that aegirine formed at P–T conditions of c. 1.15 GPa and 490°C in the basic protolith in blueschist facies conditions. Similar P–T conditions have been reported from nearby localities, either as part of retrograde conditions or due to post‐peak cooling changes in the different metamorphic assemblages. However, the P–T observed from our study does not follow the cooling or retrograde path of the reported metabasics. Therefore, we suggest that the aegirine‐bearing metabasics might have formed at an earlier stage in the nascent forearc when temperatures were elevated enough to cause dehydration of the subducting slab to generate Na‐rich fluid fluxes at ambient pressures.

Malocclusion and occlusal traits among dental and nursing students of Seven North-East states of India

BackgroundAny irregularity of the teeth or a mal-relationship of the dental arches is known as malocclusion. Among all the oro-facial problems, tooth decay is considered the most prevalent one followed by periodontal disease and dental malocclusion. Dental malocclusion is not a life-threatening condition. However, it is closely related to an individual's self-esteem and psychosocial wellbeing. The prevalence of malocclusion varies among different ethnic groups, age-groups, and gender. ObjectivesThis study was conducted with the objective to find out the prevalence of normal occlusal traits and to identify the proportion of different types of malocclusions among dental and nursing students of Seven North-Eastern states studying at a tertiary care Medical Institute. Methods and materialsThis cross-sectional study included 432 students with a mean age of 21.42 years, who satisfied the inclusion criteria. Inclusion criteria consisted of the presence of all permanent teeth with or without third molars. The oral cavity was examined using a sterile mouth mirror and flashlight followed by evaluation of all the occlusal relationships in centric occlusion position (COP). COP was achieved by asking the participant to swallow, and then to bite on his or her teeth together. The occlusion traits were assessed as normal occlusion or malocclusion using the first permanent molars as described by E.H. Angle and deviation from line of occlusion. Descriptive statistics like mean and proportions were calculated. ResultsThe prevalence of normal occlusal traits was 48.4%, and that of malocclusion was 51.6%. Class I malocclusion was most prevalent occlusal trait followed by Class II malocclusion and Class III malocclusion showed the least prevalence. ConclusionsClass I malocclusion was most prevalent followed by Class II malocclusion and Class III malocclusion showed the least prevalence.

THE PRACTICES OF ENTOMOPHAGY AROUND THE WORLD WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO NORTH-EAST INDIA: A PRIMITIVE PRACTICE THAT NEEDS TO BE SAFEGUARDED

The indigenous people of many regions of the world have always relied on edible insects for food and livelihood. This is because edible insects possess valuable nutritional components that are comparable to conventional foods. This practice is very old and has become a crucial part of the pristine culture of the natives all over the world. However, this unique culture is day by day fading in some parts of the world by the force of ‘westernization’, modern culture, and ‘disgust factor’. In North-East India where the status of entomophagy is impressive and widely prevalent, the same threats are being perceived. A very few edible insects have been analysed nutritionally. This article discusses the prevalence of entomophagy around the world in general and focuses on the states of North East India particularly Assam and Arunachal Pradesh's edible insects and their nutritional analyses. The results show that edible insects are the potentially good and smart choice in the case of nutrients and can also potentially suffice for other conventional food products whenever they are not available or readily accessible. These results in particular will also help the public acknowledge edible insects, spread awareness, and thereby preserve this special knowledge of the locals. Therefore, there is an urgent need to analyse the rest of the edible insects of North East India recorded in literature, which will strengthen our knowledge of edible insects and sustain the culture to continuity.

Genetic portrait of 23 Y-STR loci in the Naga tribes of Nagaland, India.

To explore the genomic diversity and forensic characterization of Naga tribes, Nagaland, haplotypes for 23 Y-STR markers have been analyzed. In this study, 203 unrelated male individuals residing in the Northeast Indian state of Nagaland were selected. A total of 203 unique haplotypes were observed. The value of gene diversity (GD) and discrimination capacity (DC) was observed as 0.999999998927955 and 1 respectively. Forensic interest parameters viz., power of discrimination (PD), polymorphic information content (PIC), and matching probability (PM) were found to be 0.999999998695503, 0.999999976671191, and 1.3 × 10-9 respectively, for the studied population. Inter-population comparison study showed that the Naga tribes were found to have a distinct gene pool which is reflected in the neighbor-joining tree, principle coordinate analysis, and heat map. This is the first genetic study on Naga tribes based on 23 Y-STR markers. The Y chromosomal STR data will be useful for forensic DNA application and will enrich the existing Indian Y-STR database.

Off-grid solar photovoltaic/hydrogen fuel cell system for renewable energy generation: An investigation based on techno-economic feasibility assessment for the application of end-user load demand in North-East India

In this paper, an optimal off-grid solar photovoltaic (PV)/hydrogen fuel cell (FC) (HFC) based energy system is proposed for renewable energy generation to supply electricity to the end-user load demand in north-east (NE) Indian states. The energy system is modeled and simulated in the HOMER software. The monthly average global horizontal solar radiation (GHSR) and ambient temperature of the NE states are found to be 3.95–4.79 kWh/m2 and 12.9–25.3 °C, respectively. The synthesized typical AC electrical load profile of 10 kWp is assumed to have a scaled daily annual mean value equal to 138 kWh/d and an average base demand value equal to 5.75 kW. With the considered connected load, the available GHSR and ambient temperature, the optimal sizes of renewable energy components for the considered eight geographical locations (latitude: 23° 30′-27° 3′ North, longitude: 88° 37' – 94° 7′ East) are determined based on the minimum levelized cost of energy (COE) and lowest net present cost (NPC). The optimal system architecture range obtained is 110–120 kW PV array, 10–15 kW FC, 30–60 kW electrolyzer, 40–60 kg hydrogen tank capacity and 15 kW converter. Based on optimization results, the levelized COE and NPC range obtained are 0.509–0.689 $/kWh and $ 3,27,557–4,43,004, respectively, which confirm the cost-effectiveness of the proposed optimal energy system. Besides, with a renewable fraction of 100%, the electricity generated by the PV/HFC system satisfied the load demand and produced excess electricity with capacity factor found to be 16.4–31.2% in all the NE Indian states. Moreover, the optimized electrical profile, PV profile, inverter profile, and hydrogen production from an FC are compared and analyzed in terms of monthly average and annualized values for all the NE states. Also, the range of net hydrogen produced by the electrolyzer over the year obtained is 1538–1856 kg/yr.

A new species of Pila (Gastropoda: Ampullariidae) from Mizoram, India

ABSTRACT Family Ampullariidae consists of 11 genera of freshwater snails distributed pan-tropically in the Old and the New World. One of the ampullarid genera, Pila, is distributed in Africa and Asia and consists of 28 species. Here we describe the sixth member of the genus Pila from India. Pila mizoramensis n. sp. was collected from the Northeast Indian state of Mizoram. We adopted an integrative taxonomic approach to describe this species. First, a multilocus phylogeny of the genus was built to determine its placement in the tree. Then we used pairwise distance in the cytochrome oxidase I gene to compare its divergence from its congeners. Finally morphometric data was used to show that this hill stream species of Pila does not overlap with other hill stream species in morphometric space. The morphology of the species is also discussed in detail. With the advent of molecular tools in taxonomy a plethora of new species have been described from India in the last few decades. We add this newest member of genus Pila to the growing list.ZooBank registration: http://www.zoobank.org/urn:urn:lsid:zoobank.org:pub:0ED40557-4595-49E5-99A6-8A684C5D6AB3

Phylogenetic position of the poorly known montane cascade frog Amolops monticola (Ranidae) and description of a new closely related species from Northeast India

ABSTRACT The phylogenetic position of Amolops monticola, a cascade frog species known for over 150 years, remains unknown. Yet over the years new taxa have been frequently described in the ambiguously recognised A. monticola species group, based on morphology and presumed phylogenetic affinities. Here we report fresh collections of A. monticola from the Indian Himalayas and clarify its identity with new molecular and morphological evidence. Furthermore, our surveys in the Northeast Indian State of Arunachal Pradesh have led to the discovery of another new species in the A. monticola group from Siang River basin encompassing the Adi hills (historically known as Abor hills). The new species, formally described as Amolops adicola sp. nov., is morphologically distinguished from its congeners by a suite of characters that include adult size, body colouration and markings, skin texture, snout shape, foot webbing and digit tip morphology, in addition to significant morphometric distinctness observed in principal component analysis. Phylogenetically, the new species is recovered as a well-supported sister taxon of A. monticola, based on Bayesian and maximum likelihood inferences as well as Bayesian Poisson Tree Processes (bPTP) species delimitation analysis using 2001 bp of mitochondrial DNA (16S rRNA, cytochrome c oxidase subunit I and NADH dehydrogenase 2). It differs from other known members of the group by considerable genetic distances in the studied loci: ≥ 4.3% at 16S, ≥ 6.1% at COI and ≥ 7.0% at ND2. The study also shows for the first time the phylogenetic affinities of another Indian member of the A. monticola group, A. kohimaensis. Altogether, the new insights resolve the long-existing enigma surrounding A. monticola and facilitate a better understanding of systematic relationships within the large A. monticola species group. Our findings also emphasise the need for further dedicated studies on the cascade frogs of Northeast India.

Non Government Organizations (NGO)-The gap fillers during COVID-19 lockdown in Assam, India

COVID-19 pandemic caused due to SARS-CoV2 has disrupted the spectrum of health care. The wide arrays of supportive and palliative care needed for patients with ailments were grossly neglected, due to the diversion of resources and healthcare professionals in COVID management. This deficiency was further exaggerated by extended lockdown and closure of outdoor patient care services resulting in unprecedented crisis in disease management. Further, COVID-19 has been associated with increased risk of morbidity and mortality arising from associated risk factors in geriatric subjects and those with other high risk co-morbidities like hypertension, COPD, diabetes and cancer. North East Indian states and the adjoining regions seem to have suffered substantially during the COVID-19 crisis due to their pre-existing vulnerabilities and under developed health care infrastructure and logistics. This deficiency, however, seems to have been fulfilled substantially by the participation of NGO (Non-Government Organizations) and other volunteer services who has actively participated to provide basic healthcare and other life support to cancer patients in this crisis.

THE USE OF ICT IN ESL CLASSROOMS IN MANIPUR

<p>The use of Information and Communication Technology (ICT) in education has increased manifold in the present times. The role and use of ICT as a tool for English Language Teaching (ELT) is increasingly explored by educators as they assist in creating collaborative and independent learning environment. ICT plays a pertinent role in enhancing motivation, creativity and critical thinking of the learners. In the study, the attitudes of the students and teachers of the secondary schools of Manipur, a state in northeast India towards using ICT in teaching and learning English language are investigated. The paper aims to make the teachers and learners aware of the use of ICT in English as a Second Language (ESL) classroom. Through the questionnaires administered to both teachers and learners, the importance and challenges in the pedagogy of ELT using ICT is identified and discussed. The findings of the survey indicate that most of the teachers and learners held positive approach towards integrating ICT in teaching and learning English language.</p><p> </p>

Seroprevalence of Rickettsial Infections in Northeast India: A Population-Based Cross-Sectional Survey.

A cross-sectional survey was undertaken to estimate seroprevalence of immunoglobulin G antibodies against scrub typhus, spotted fever group rickettsiae, and typhus group rickettsiae in randomly selected 48 clusters in 12 districts of 3 Northeast states of India: Assam, Meghalaya, and Tripura. Individuals in 3 age groups (5-8, 9-17, and 18-45 years) were selected from each cluster. Sera (N = 2360) tested were collected as part of a national survey on dengue seroprevalence conducted between September 2017 and February 2018. Overall, seroprevalence of 2.5% was detected against rickettsioses, with highest positivity against spotted fever group rickettsiae, followed by scrub typhus and typhus group rickettsiae. Seroprevalence was highest in Tripura (3.7%), followed by Assam (2.6%) and Meghalaya (1.04%). Adults of 18 to 45 years of age were found to be most affected (3.8%). The study findings indicate the need for increasing testing facilities for active case detection at hospital levels. Efforts on implementing effective preventing strategies are suggested to be targeted in disease-specific endemic foci.

ECOTOURISM AND RURAL LIVELIHOOD OPPORTUNITIES IN EAST KHASI HILLS DISTRICT, MEGHALAYA

Meghalaya is one of the states in North-east India that is blessed with beautiful and mesmerising natural scenic beauty. The undulating green hills, pleasant breeze, waterfalls gushing from the mountains, complimented with cool climatic condition is the best combination for nature loving tourists to experience. This paper identifies the livelihood opportunities that ecotourism has provided to the local communities. Three villages i.e., Mawlynnong, Riwai and Mawsmai has been selected for the study. Purposive Sampling was adopted to identify households engaged in ecotourism activities. Primary data was collected from the households that are engaged generating livelihood from Ecotourism related activities. There are a wide range of ecotourism related activities that are being engaged by the local community members to generate income. There are also livelihood activities engaged by the respondents that has a scope for providing employment for other community members as well. In the context of the three villages selected, ecotourism has served as both primary and also secondary sources of income for the local communities. it is evident that ecotourism has played a major role in promoting livelihood and village economy in the three villages. Ecotourism has the potential for the enhancement of rural livelihood through more innovative, sustainable and eco-friendly practices.

Molecular characterization of porcine group A rotavirus to contain piglet diarrhea for productivity enhancement in North East India.

Gastrointestinal tract infections with acute diarrhea are indeed a serious cause of concern that held back the swine industry of North East India and among the various etiological agents causing the disease, group A rotavirus is the most common. In this regard, molecular characterization of the viral strains circulating in the region is of utmost importance for a strategic approach to control the disease. Thus, in the present study, diarrheic fecal samples from piglets of Tripura and Assam were evaluated for genotypic characterization of VP7 and VP4 gene of the virus. The samples positive for group A rotavirus were subjected to G and P type determination by nested- multiplex RT PCR as well as nucleotide sequencing of VP7 and VP4 gene. Nested- multiplex RT PCR revealed the presence of porcine group A rotavirus in the genotypic combination of G1P[6], G3P[6], G8P[6] and G4P[6] in the two states of North East India. Nucleotide sequencing of VP7 and VP4 genes however, revealed emergence of an unusual genotypic combination G26P[13]. VP7 and VP4 nucleotide and its deduced amino acid sequences when compared with global isolates, showed that the present strains shared closest similarity to the porcine rotavirus strain TJ4-1from Japan and hp140 from Eastern India. Identification of a novel genotype G26P[13] in the RVA infected pig population of Tripura and Assam, suggested presence of a greater diversity in rotavirus strains in the region. Thus, it evokes the need for continuous monitoring to assess and consider the strain variability in the design of a suitable vaccine candidate against the virus. Supplementary InformationThe online version of this article (10.1007/s13337-021-00659-6) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Common pool resource dependency and its impact on current income and its equity among fisher households in selected districts of Tripura State, North-east India

The study has assessed the common pool resource dependency and income distribution pattern across households involved in fisheries in the North-east Indian state of Tripura. The study was carried out based on the responses of 230 sample households involved in common pool resource collection. The findings of the study revealed income quartile-wise households dependency on different common pool resources to total current income. The dependence on common pool resources does not decline with total current income, instead there was evidence of a decline first and then increase in dependence on common pool resources. The contribution of income from capture fisheries was 18.84, 14.32, 6.70 and 3.6% to the total income of lowest quartile, 25-50%income quartile, 50-75 income quartile and top 25% income quartile respectively. Considering the importance of income generated from capture fisheries resources, the study attempted to find out Gini concentration and Lorenze curve for 90 households involved in capture fisheries. The Gini concentration ratio of 0.207 revealed almost equitable distribution of income across the households involved in capture fisheries. Considering these facts, the study suggested policy measures for sustainable management of open water bodies in the state which will lead to bring in more income to the fishers which would also help to bring equity among households income.

Does a Diversified Crop Portfolio Make Farmers More Efficient? A Stochastic Production Frontier Analysis of Farm-level Data from Assam, India

The agriculture sector in India is beset with twin limitations of shrinking cultivable area and absence of major technological breakthroughs in the recent past. In such a situation, a judicious management of the farm in the form of adjustment in a crop portfolio can be quite useful to maximise output and minimise wastage of resources. This article seeks to examine whether a diversified crop portfolio makes the farmers more efficient using farm-level survey data collected from geographically diverse areas of Assam, a state in northeast India. The results of a stochastic production frontier analysis show that adoption of a diversified crop portfolio across crops and seasons makes the farmers more efficient in cultivation by helping them reduce weather-induced damages to crops and reap better returns from farming. This efficiency-enhancing effect of crop diversification is found to be heterogeneous among the regions. However, too much diversification reduces the efficiency of farmers. The results have important implications for Assam where floods cause extensive damage to crops every year. Moreover, access to extension services and government support are found to make the farmers more efficient. On the other hand, fixed-rent form of tenancy reduces efficiency of the farmers while household size has a positive impact on the same.

Consumption pattern and genotoxic potential of various smokeless tobacco products in Assam, India: A public health concern

Smokeless tobacco (SLT) consumption is presumed to be one of the major causes of high incidence of oral cancer in India. The present study aimed to document various types of SLT products consumed and their potential impact on the genome instability on the population from Assam state in Northeast India. A cross-sectional study (n = 5000) showed that 60.56 % of the study population consumed at least one of the three forms (sadagura, zarda and khaini) of SLT of which 52.0 % were only sadagura users. Genotoxicity assessment using buccal cytome assay in 240 age and sex matched volunteers revealed that except for zarda, other forms of SLT induced significantly higher incidence micronuclei in the buccal epithelial cells compared to the control individuals. Similar effects were also observed in other cytome parameters related to cell proliferation, cytokinesis defects and cell death. Significantly higher incidence of micronucleus was observed among sadagura and khaini users in lymphocyte cytokinesis-blocked micronucleus assay. The addition of lime in sadagura increased the pH and anion levels which possibly result in higher absorption and may lead to the development of cellular anomalies.

Library Anxiety Among Marginalized University Students in Northeast India

Objective – Library anxiety experienced by students has been discussed extensively for many decades. While the phenomenon is widely recognized, little attention has been paid to seeing its specific effect on marginalized sections of the society. The study attempts to understand the library anxiety experienced by students at three different universities in Assam. Assam is the only state in Northeast India to have private, state, and central universities. These universities draw their student populations from several different hill states in Northeast India, all of which face significant socio-political-economic challenges. Methods – A stratified random sample technique was used for the study. A total of 150 questionnaires were distributed equally among the three universities in Assam and found 119 questionnaires were fit for analysis. The study adopted the modified and validated version of the Bostick Library Anxiety Scale developed by Anwar, Al-Kandari, and Al-Qallaff (AQAK) in 2004, with 32 item statements and 4 categories. The questionnaire is divided into two parts: Demographic Variables and the Library Anxiety Scale. The categories used for the study were: Category 1 (Staff Approachability) – 11 statements; Category 2 (Feelings of Inadequacy) – 6 statements); Category 3 (Library Confidence) – 8 statements; and Category 4 (Library Constraints) – 7 statements. Results – The study hypothesized that factors such as gender, the language of instruction, type of university, and caste or community do not influence library anxiety among Northeast India students. However, the study's findings suggest that type of university influences library anxiety among students and its three constructs. Tezpur university students experience a higher level of library anxiety. Although no overall significant difference in the level of library anxiety was observed among students across gender (p=0.278, p> 0.05), the language of instruction (p=0.023, p> 0.05), castes and communities (p=0.223, p> 0.05), there was a significant difference in one construct of library anxiety among students based on gender (feelings of inadequacy), the language of education instruction (staff approachability), caste and community (feelings of inadequacy). Conclusions – Results from the present study provided compelling evidence to suggest that many students, irrespective of their gender, the language of instruction, type of university, discipline, and caste or community experience library anxiety. The difference levels of library anxiety among independent variables indicate a critical lack of information literacy skills. Overall, library anxiety scores among the students were moderate; some categories such as staff approachability, the feeling of inadequacy, and library constraint are the attributes of the students' anxiety. However, the findings of the study also suggest that students are confident in using the library. They are optimistic, enthusiastic, and keen to use library resources.

On the Estimation of Probability Model for the Number of Female Child Births among Females

The study of pattern of female child birth is one of the most crucial area of human demography because it plays very important role in the building of a nation. In the present study, an attempt has been made to work-out the pattern of female child births among females belongs to different subdomains of population through the probability model and the parameters involved in the probability model under consideration has also been estimated. The suggested model, for illustration has been applied to an observed set of data taken from NFHS-III (2005-06) for the seven North-East states of India known as Seven Sisters.

Changes in soil carbon stocks under plantation systems and natural forests in Northeast India

Understanding the impact of land use conversion from forests to plantations on soil organic carbon (SOC) stocks is critical for sustainable land and forest management in Northeast India (NEI). The present study was conducted in West Garo hills district of Meghalaya state in NEI, to evaluate the impact of plantations (rubber, tea, areca nut, cashew nut and pineapple) on SOC stocks in comparison with a natural forest. Soil samples were collected from plantations of different age classes (0–5, 5–10, 10–15, 15–20, 20–25, 25–30, and 30–40 years old) to assess their potential for C storage. RothC model was run at equilibrium on forest land-use, and thereafter was calibrated and validated to model SOC stocks in the plantations over the 40 years chrono-sequence using the baseline average climate data. Results showed that with increase in age of plantations (at 40 years), SOC stocks decreased to 57.4, 50.3 and 44.4 Mg C ha−1 in rubber, areca nut and pineapple plantations at the average rate of 0.41, 0.58 and 0.73 Mg C ha−1 yr−1, respectively. This corresponded to a SOC stock loss of about 22, 32 and 40% compared to the initial SOC stock under forest (73.6 Mg C ha−1). Conversely, SOC stocks in tea and cashew nut plantations increased to 83.4 and 75.4 Mg C ha−1 (at the average rate of 0.24 and 0.05 Mg C ha−1 yr−1), corresponding to a SOC gain of about 13 and 2.5% compared to that under forest over 40 years. The data on abrupt climate change (ACC) scenario by RothC simulations showed that rubber, areca nut, pineapple and forest land uses would lose carbon at the rate of 0.65, 0.65, 1.42 and 0.13 Mg C ha−1 yr−1, respectively. Conversely, tea and cashew nut plantations might gain C at the rate of 0.35 and 0.23 Mg C ha−1 yr−1, respectively, representing a valuableoption for storing C and mitigating and adapting to climate change. Further, protecting and restoring natural forests and/or mixed stands of native tree species might reduce the risks of the loss of biodiversity and be a viable option for sustainable land management in NEI.

Emergence of porcine circovirus 2g (PCV2g) and evidence for recombination between genotypes 2g, 2b and 2d among field isolates from non-vaccinated pigs in Mizoram, India.

The molecular genetics of fourteen Porcine Circovirus 2 (PCV2) isolates from non-vaccinated pigs that died of porcine circovirus associated disease (PCVAD) between 2012 and 2019 in the Mizoram state of North East India, was studied. The PCVAD in these pigs, that had shown characteristic clinical signs and lesions associated with post-weaning multi-systemic wasting syndrome and reproductive failure was confirmed with detection of PCV2 DNA in the tissue samples. Complete viral genomes of these fourteen field isolates were sequenced following in house developed overlapping PCR. The multiple sequence alignment of viral capsid proteins or the open reading frame 2 (ORF2) sequences showed highly conserved residues known for antibody recognition and genotype specificity, however, variations were noticed in the amino acid residues previously known as important for in vitro replication of PCV2. The phylogenetic analyses based on the complete genome sequences enabled identification of genotype PCV2g (9/14, 64.29%) for the first time in India along with genotypes PCV2d (3/14, 21.43%) and PCV2b (2/14, 14.29%). Further, recombination analyses showed evidence for recombination between the genotypes 2b, 2g and 2d. This is the first report on the prevalence of genotype PCV2g and natural inter-genotypic (2g-2b, 2g-2d and 2d-2g) recombinants in India. The findings indicate a non-vaccine driven, natural genotypic shift and signify the need for routine PCV2 surveillance and genotyping. Our analyses also provide a solid ground for future studies to understand the consequences of multiple PCV2 genotypes within a pig population with respect to vaccination, diagnostics and emergence of new genotypes.

Reproductive Profile and Evidence of Reproductive Compensation among the Miju Mishmi of Indo-Myanmar-China Border

ABSTRACT Understanding the reproductive profile of a population is required for making and implementing various health policies. A plethora of studies on the behaviour of fertility and mortality across the globe have been reported. Very few studies have been reported from the population of Arunachal Pradesh, one of the states in northeast India. The present study aims to examine the reproductive profile of a small tribe of Arunachal Pradesh, namely, Miju Mishmi, inhabiting the Indo-Myanmar-China border area. Two hundred and ten households were surveyed to collect the information regarding fertility, mortality, and associated factors using a pretested schedule. Miju Mishmi is experiencing considerably high fertility and mortality. Many social and biological factors for fertility and mortality prevailing in this population were identified. The existence of reproductive compensation is also found in this population. However, unlike in many Indian societies, Miju Mishmi has no preference for a son and hence no impact on fertility.