Northeast Indian State Research Articles

“The Role of Universities in Rural Development”

This paper deals with the role of universities in the process of Rural Development. This paper tries to define Rural Development, the problems and challenges involved in Rural Development. This paper then discusses the Eco system of Rural Development & the different roles needed to be played by universities; steps in the process of Rural Development & suggests a sustainable model for Rural Development making universities as the change centers. human lives. Latest World Bank reports show that a third of worlds poor lives in India.In 2010, World Bank stated, 32.7% of the total Indian people fall below the international poverty line of US$ 1.25 per day (PPP 3 ) while 68.7% live on less than US$ 2 per day. A study by the Oxford Poverty and Human Development Initiative using a Multi-dimensional Poverty Index (MPI) found that there were 650 million people (53.7% of population) living in poverty in India, of which 340 million people (28.6% of the population) were living in severe poverty, and that a further 198 million people (16.4% of the population) were vulnerable to poverty. 421 million of the poor are concentrated in eight North Indian and East Indian states of Bihar, Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand, Madhya Pradesh, Orissa, Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh and West Bengal. This number is higher than the 410 million poor living in the 26 poorest African nations. Since India moved to an open economy in 1991, an enormous amount of social wealth is created. Indias economy has grown very steadily over the past two decades. Despite significant economic progress, almost one fourth of the nation's population still earns less than the government-specified poverty threshold of 32 rupees per day (approximately US$ 0.6) 4 . The government & the existing mechanisms failed to bring down the trickle-down effect of wealth creation, i.e. Wealth Distribution, from Top to the bottom end of the Social ladder. As against the theories, Economic Liberalization in India has in fact, widened the Gap between the Rich & the Poor. As an effect, two types of Indiacame into existence within India. One, The Urban Landscape - India, that is poised & poignant with success stories, producing more no. of Millionaires & Billionaires every year; and the other, the Rural Land Scape - Bharat, that is striving very hard to produce at least a Dollar-a-day-wage for many. Approximately, 65%of Indias population lives in Rural India 5 and it is also estimated that about 78% of the total Indian poor lives in Rural India. Which only says - thatabout two thirds of the total population of India, are either staying away or not participating enough actively in the Economic Development process. India cannot have a sustainable growth rate without the participation of the Rural India (Bharat) in main stream economic activity. Hence, Rural Development is the Need-of-the Hour for the overall & sustainable growth of India. Rural development generally refers to the process of improving the quality of life and economic wellbeing of people living in relatively isolated and sparsely populated areas 6 .

Identification of Industrial Health Using ANN

The customary practice of identifying industrial sickness is a set traditional techniques which rely upon a range of manual monitoring and compilation of financial records. It makes the process tedious, time consuming and often are susceptible to manipulation. Therefore, certain readily available tools are required which can deal with such uncertain situations arising out of industrial sickness. It is more significant for a country like India where the fruits of development are rarely equally distributed. In this paper, we propose an approach based on Artificial Neural Network (ANN) to deal with industrial sickness with specific focus on a few such units taken from a less developed north-east (NE) Indian state like Assam. The proposed system provides decision regarding industrial sickness using eight different parameters which are directly related to the stages of sickness of such units. The mechanism primarily uses certain signals and symptoms of industrial health to decide upon the state of a unit. Specifically, we formulate an ANN based block with data obtained from a few selected units of Assam so that required decisions related to industrial health could be taken. The system thus formulated could become an important part of planning and development. It can also contribute towards computerization of decision support systems related to industrial health and help in better management. Artificial Neural Network (ANN) to deal with industrial sickness with specific focus on a few such units taken from a less developed north-east (NE) Indian state like Assam. The proposed system provides decision regarding industrial sickness using eight different parameters which are directly related to the stages of sickness of such units. The mechanism primarily uses certain signals and symptoms of industrial health to decide upon the state of a unit. Specifically, we propose an ANN based block with data obtained from a few selected units of Assam so that required decisions related to industrial health could be taken. The system thus formulated could become an important part of planning and development. It can also contribute towards computerization of decision support systems related to industrial health and help in better management. The ANN is a non-parametric tool which can learn from the surrounding environment and use the knowledge thus acquired for subsequent decision making similar to biological systems (11). This ability of the ANN has made it a popular mechanism for dealing with a range of applications in engineering, technology, finance, management and related disciplines. The system thus formulated could become an important part of planning and development. It can also contribute towards computerization of decision support systems related to industrial health and help in better management. The rest of the paper is organized as follows. Section II includes a brief theoretical background relevant for the work. Primarily, this section focuses on different stages of industrial health (Section II-A) and the basics of ANN (Section II-B). Section III describes the details of the proposed soft- computational framework for analyzing industrial health. The experiments performed and the results derived are included in Section IV. Section V concludes the description.

Prevalence of β-Thalassemia and Hemoglobin E in Two Migrant Populations of Manipur, North East India

Hemoglobinopathies are a group of inherited single-gene disorders found commonly in the Mediterranean region, Middle East, Indian subcontinent, Burma, and South East Asia. As many as 229 mutation variants of β-thalassemia are reported in the world, many community/region-specific mutations. Very little on thalassemia has been reported in Manipur, a North Eastern Indian state. Thus, a community genetic approach through population screening can be applied to the people of Manipur and a total of 602 blood samples from unrelated Meitei Brahmins (n=300) and Meitei Muslims (n=302) were screened for abnormal hemoglobins by Naked Eye Single Tube Red Cell Osmotic Fragility Test (NESTROFT). HBA(2) level was estimated by using high-performance liquid chromatography and molecular analysis was done by using PCR. Sequencing was also carried out to confirm the mutations. High frequencies of NESTROFT positive (10%) and NESTROFT doubtful (11%) cases were found among the Meitei Brahmins in comparison to the Meitei Muslims [NESTROFT positive (3.31%) and NESTROFT doubtful (1.33%)]. The allele frequency of HB*E was 0.022 and 0.012 among the Meitei Brahmin and Meitei Muslim, respectively. Sequencing of the β-globin gene confirmed a very rare β-thalassemia [-90 C→T (0.33%)] among the Meitei Brahmins of Manipur. This mutation with hemoglobin E in one of the present population hints the presence of the Mongoloid stock among them, possibly from China. There is a need for further studies on other populations of Manipur and the neighboring North East Indian states using such genetic markers.

Meeting the needs of women who use drugs and alcohol in North-east India – a challenge for HIV prevention services

BackgroundThe North-east Indian states of Manipur and Nagaland consistently report relatively high HIV prevalence. The targeted HIV prevention interventions in these two states are mostly delivered by non-government organizations (NGOs), and prevention of HIV transmission by injecting drug use is their main focus. Most injecting drug users (IDUs) are male, and the services are primarily tailored to meet their needs, which are not necessarily the same as those for women. This qualitative study describes the health service needs of women who use drugs and alcohol in Manipur and Nagaland, with the goal of identifying strategies and activities that can be implemented by NGOs wanting to improve their reach among vulnerable women.MethodsIn 2009-10, semi-structured in-depth interviews were conducted with 27 key informants and nine focus group discussions (FGDs) with women who use drugs and alcohol, and two FGDs with male IDUs. The thematic areas covered included: the context of female drug and alcohol use; drug and alcohol use patterns; HIV risk behaviours; barriers and facilitators of service use; perceived health needs; and expressed health service needs. The data were recorded, transcribed, translated and thematically analysed.ResultsThe most problematic substance for women from Nagaland was alcohol, and for women from Manipur it was heroin. The most commonly identified health problems were primarily related to the women’s drug and alcohol use, reproductive health and mental health. Other problems of major concern included social exclusion, violence, children’s welfare, and financial difficulties. The expressed service needs of these women were women-only integrated health services, women-only detoxification and rehabilitation services, mental health services, desensitization of mainstream health workers, free access to medicines, assistance to meet basic needs, and a safe place for engaging in sex work.ConclusionThe expressed health and other service needs of women who use drugs and alcohol in Manipur and Nagaland do not match the services currently provided by HIV prevention NGOs, and this may, in part, account for the relatively poor uptake of these services by women. Strategies and activities that can be implemented by NGOs to strengthen their reach to vulnerable women are identified. However, many of these women’s needs are beyond the scope of services typically offered by HIV prevention NGOs, and require a coordinated multi-sectoral response.

Some Aspects Of Socio-Economic Development In North Eastern Region Of India: Does It Go In Right Path?

This study deals with the study of the diversification of developmental activities in northeast states of India. Economic development scholars and third world analysts have effectively argued through the use of economic data and statistics that high rates of population growth are economically unsustainable. The problem lies in a very simple calculation. The resources of a country, whether the land area and the infrastructural services, such as water and electricity, not even to mention nutrition and health care requirements, are established at a certain level and raising that level, as in expanding services and raising food production, are long term. Almost all the countries in the world will have imbalances at regional and lower level in the equitable share in the national assets like natural resources, economic assets and manpower distribution. In order to reduce regional or sub-regional imbalances, planners and policy makers make efforts and evolve the strategies which are aimed at minimizing such imbalances. The past one and half decade has witnessed a tremendous upward swing in various development programmes giving a new thrust to the North-east economy. The study seeks to search that does the recent speedy developmental activities in North East Region undergo in right way?

Anopheles (Cellia) maculatus group: Its spatial distribution and molecular characterization of member species in north-east India

Anopheles (Cellia) maculatus is considered a group of at least nine formally named species. Faced with the difficulty of correct morphological identification due to overlapping characters, several member species of the An. maculatus group are known to play important role in malaria transmission in the Oriental region. Current assemblage, distribution and vectorial importance of the member species within the Maculatus group is far from clear in the north-eastern region of India. Our study encompassing 410 individuals, collected from 67 geo-referenced spots across the eight north-east Indian states, identified the presence of 6 member species of the Maculatus group using the molecular tools. Anopheles dravidicus and Anopheles rampae were documented for the first time in this part of India with latter forming the new country record. While Anopheles pseudowillmori (59.5%) and An. maculatus (32%) were widely available species in most of the north-eastern states, restricted distribution of Anopheles willmori to Nagaland and that of Anopheles sawadwongporni and An. rampae to Mizoram state was noted. None of the species was found positive for human malaria parasite. While no intraspecific differences existed in the sequences of second internal transcribed spacer (ITS2) region of ribosomal DNA (r-DNA) of the member species of the Maculatus group within north-east India, few differences were detected in the sequences of An. dravidicus, An. maculatus and An. pseudowillmori from north-east India with species from the neighbouring countries.

Genetic population structure of the malaria vector Anopheles baimaii in north-east India using mitochondrial DNA

BackgroundAnopheles baimaii is a primary vector of human malaria in the forest settings of Southeast Asia including the north-eastern region of India. Here, the genetic population structure and the basic population genetic parameters of An. baimaii in north-east India were estimated using DNA sequences of the mitochondrial cytochrome oxidase sub unit II (COII) gene.MethodsAnopheles baimaii were collected from 26 geo-referenced locations across the seven north-east Indian states and the COII gene was sequenced from 176 individuals across these sites. Fifty-seven COII sequences of An. baimaii from six locations in Bangladesh, Myanmar and Thailand from a previous study were added to this dataset. Altogether, 233 sequences were grouped into eight population groups, to facilitate analyses of genetic diversity, population structure and population history.ResultsA star-shaped median joining haplotype network, unimodal mismatch distribution and significantly negative neutrality tests indicated population expansion in An. baimaii with the start of expansion estimated to be ~0.243 million years before present (MYBP) in north-east India. The populations of An. baimaii from north-east India had the highest haplotype and nucleotide diversity with all other populations having a subset of this diversity, likely as the result of range expansion from north-east India. The north-east Indian populations were genetically distinct from those in Bangladesh, Myanmar and Thailand, indicating that mountains, such as the Arakan mountain range between north-east India and Myanmar, are a significant barrier to gene flow. Within north-east India, there was no genetic differentiation among populations with the exception of the Central 2 population in the Barail hills area that was significantly differentiated from other populations.ConclusionsThe high genetic distinctiveness of the Central 2 population in the Barail hills area of the north-east India should be confirmed and its epidemiological significance further investigated. The lack of genetic population structure in the other north-east Indian populations likely reflects large population sizes of An. baimaii that, historically, were able to disperse through continuous forest habitats in the north-east India. Additional markers and analytical approaches are required to determine if recent deforestation is now preventing ongoing gene flow. Until such information is acquired, An. baimaii in north-east India should be treated as a single unit for the implementation of vector control measures.

Political Economy in the North East: Contextual Issues

This paper was presented as the Key Note Address at the National Seminar on Political Economy of States of North East India held at the Manipur College, Imphal, India on March 2, 2012. The paper spells out the significant realities of the region which must be kept in mind while attempting to examine the political economy issues.

DEPLETION OF COMMON PROPERTY RESOURCES AND ENVIRONMENTAL DEGRADATION: A MICRO STUDY IN NORTH-EAST INDIA

Forest resources act as life supporting resources in North-Eastern part of India. It influences the life and lore of the people with rich culture, traditions, ethos and indigenous knowledge systems for conservation and its sustainable use. However, with the increasing population growth , unhindered immigration, expansion of agriculture, clearance of forests for various purposes, urbanization and other biotic pressures such as grazing by cattle and goat, cutting of timber and fuel wood, collection of rare and ornamental plants for trade, collection of medicinal plants, cane bamboos and other minor forest produces, resource-base of the region have gradually been depleted and threatenedthe existences of large number of plant species in the region. Based on a large scale primary survey covering 19 villages and 447 households of two districts of Arunachal Pradesh , a State in North East India, this paper attempts to make an in depth analysis of the role of common property forest resources in the lives of autochthons . The study also attempts to quantify the extent of depletion of common property resources and its impact on ecological sustainability of the region. The determinants of common property forest depletion enable to suggest for an environmentally sustainable management of common property forest resources which would not only help to prevent the resources degradation and rural poverty but will also conserve the commons from over-exploitation.

Shifting cultivation in steeply sloped regions: a review of management options and research priorities for Mizoram state, Northeast India

Shifting cultivation is a common agricultural practice that is the basis of subsistence for many rural populations throughout the Tropics. The recent strong trend towards shorter fallow periods has led to widespread concern about declines in soil fertility, crop yields, and food security. Unlike most research on this problem, we focus here on steeply sloped regions such as Mizoram state in northeast India where most land is at an incline of >33°, and the potential for relatively large soil erosional losses may necessitate distinctive solutions. Our goal is to review the relevant literature so as to optimize the direction and quality of future science research on shifting cultivation in Mizoram. Our analysis suggests that the most promising options for improving shifting cultivation are nutrient and water supplementation, optimising crop choice, extending the site use period, enhancing the fallow recovery rate, and controlling the burns and their environmental impacts. Promising alternatives for replacing shifting cultivation include inter-row cropping between contour hedgerows of nitrogen-fixing shrubs, slope terracing, agroforestry with anti-erosional plants, and bamboo forest harvesting. In addition, we identify the principal research questions that should be addressed before each of these options can be evaluated and recommended as part of land use planning initiatives. Overall, we conclude that intelligent and careful use of commercial fertilizer in combination with organic matter additions is likely to be an important feature of many of the solutions to the problem of shortening fallow periods in shifting cultivation on steep slopes.

Empirical Study on Impact of Integrated watershed Development project in Mizoram state of north east india

The present study was conducted with an objective to assess impact of integrated watershed development programme in Mizoram State of North East India. The study is based on primary and secondary data. Primary data was collected from a random sample of the beneficiary households selected in the watershed area. The sample size was 105 households of the 7 project villages. Equal numbers of households were selected from each watershed village on the basis of systematic random sampling. The survey was conducted during November 2010. This study employed both qualitative and quantitative methods approach for evaluating watershed projects. Author surveyed 7 watershed villages in Mizoram and collected socio-economic data from the watershed officials and primary stakeholders. Jhum cultivation causes serious land degradation and ecological problems in Mizoram. Integrated Wasteland Development Programme (IWDP) is carried out on watershed approach with a theme of land and water resource management. This study has examined its effect on sustainable development of natural resources, environment protection, and improvement of the socio- economic conditions of the resource poor sections on participatory approach. Generally people in the watershed area are generously appreciated the watershed project because when we compare with other centrally sponsored schemes it is the only scheme reaching to the common poor people's door. They felt that if this scheme is implemented in a systematic and effective manner it will benefit the common people immensely and more productively. The project potential is very high. In order to realize this potential, it needs transparency and efficiency in implementation.

Empirical Study on Impact of Integrated watershed Development project in Mizoram state of north east india

Empirical Study on Impact of Integrated watershed Development project in Mizoram state of north east india

The Flourish Economies of South East Asia with the Role of North East India’s Trade Relation

In the era In the era of LPG, no option is left for India but to adopt globalisation which India has joined since 1994. As such, promoting trade across the nations has been the necessity of the day. There is no denying the fact that the North East India offers opportunities for trade with South East Asian countries. But, at the same time, it is also beset with certain threats like immigration, drug, HIV and so on which have already assumed alarming proportions in some of the states of North East India. All this underlines the need for a perspicacious and holistic understanding and approach with resolute efforts to exploit the opportunities the North East Region offer for borders trade to the best advantage of the North East, in particular and the country as a whole, in general. Analysing the implications of New Economic Policy for the development of the North East region, the contributors address a wide range of issues concerning the market-oriented reforms in healthcare system, inclusive growth of North East economy, FDI flow in the region, micro-finance, employment generation, poverty alleviation, resource and Look East Policy. The paper focus on the impact of globalization on society, and economy of the North East region.

Gender Differences Specially in health: A Case Study in Meghalaya and Tripura

Male and female are like two sides of the same coin. The development of science and the society is due to the combined effort of male & female members in the society. But in actual practice they are not treated equally. In the patrilineal societies, women are not considered as equal with men, though they enjoy a better social status than men. In patrilineal societies a women, after the marriage, leave her natal place permanently and goes to reside with her husband. Again, in patrilineal societies the ritual role of the male is considered more vital than the female. These being the most influential reasons, the women have remained backward in various fields as compared to males. In some traditional societies, they are considered as social and economic burden on the parents and hence some of the parents do not prefer to have female issues. We will discuss different issues but emphasis will be given on health. Two states in North-East India namely Meghalaya & Tripura have been chosen for investigation. Meghalaya is dominated by tribes who belong to matrilineal societies, whereas Tripura is almost completely patrilineal. We

A satellite based study of pre-monsoon thunderstorms (Nor’westers) over eastern India and their organization into mesoscale convective complexes

Nor’wester studies have a long history of climatological, synoptic and radar observations. These studies have been briefly mentioned and the field programs for the study of Nor’westers implemented in India Meteorological Department (IMD) from 1931-1941 have been touched upon. Indian atmospheric science community organized a multi-year STORM program during 2007-2010 to understand the formation of these severe local storms and also understand their dynamics through modeling. An attempt is made to use INSAT Infrared and Visible imageries to document the convective cells which developed over Eastern and North-East (NE) Indian states and adjoining countries of Bangladesh, Bhutan and Nepal for the year 2009. Also convective cells which organized themselves into Mesoscale Convective Complexes (MCCs) for the four years period 2007-2010 have been studied. It is found that by and large Eastern India (Jharkhand, Orissa, Sub Himalayan West Bengal and Bangladesh) is responsible for the initiation of convection. Development occurs as the cells propagate over the neighbouring areas of Bangladesh and NE India. Important observations with regard to initiation, maturity and dissipation etc. of the MCCs are provided. It is suggested that half hourly to hourly monitoring of convection can be accomplished by using INSAT imagery, along with multiple overlapping radar coverages, which could help in nowcasting of convective cells. Synoptic and thermodynamic forcing can help as broad guidance. The only effective way for effective warning is nowcasting using satellite and multiple radar coverage.

Molecular Genetic Perspectives on the Origin of the Lyngngam Tribe of Meghalaya, India

Meghalaya, one of the Northeast Indian states, is inhabited by two major tribal clusters, Khasi and Garo. The disputed origin of the Lyngngam tribe of Meghalaya is a result of their geographic distribution, which is sandwiched between that of the above two major tribal clusters. Our earlier analysis of ethnohistoric, linguistic and demographic data suggested the neighbouring Khasi and Garo as the putative parental population(s) of Lyngngam. In this paper, we have investigated the Lyngngam, Garo and all the 7 subtribes of Khasi of Meghalaya using molecular genetic markers-autosomal, Y-chromosome and mtDNA-to explore the possible origin of the Lyngngam tribe. We obtained admixture estimates for Lyngngam versus the putative parental populations. While autosomal STRs and mtDNA results clearly suggest Khasi origin of the Lyngngam, Y-STR distances show greater proximity of Lyngngam to the Garo. Further, the comparative analysis of the Y-Chromosome and mtDNA haplogroup data on relevant Austro-Asiatic and Tibeto-Burman populations from South and Southeast Asia, published by us earlier, clearly exclude the possibility of Lyngngam origin from outside Meghalaya. The molecular genetic evidence in conjunction with the linguistic, demographic and ethno-historic information clearly suggests Khasi origin of the Lyngngam tribe.

Ethnomedicinal Plants of India with Special Reference to an Indo-Burma Hotspot Region: An overview

Ethnomedicines are widely used across India. Scientific knowledge of these uses varies with some regions, such as the North Eastern India region, being less well known. Plants being used are increasingly threatened by a variety of pressures and are being categories for conservation management purposes. Mizoram state in North East India has served as the location of our studies of ethnomedicines and their conservation status. 304 plants from 96 families were recorded as being used by the indigenous Mizo (and other tribal communities) over the last ten years. Analysis of distributions of species across plant families revealed both positive and negative correlations that are interpretted as evidence of consistent bases for selection.

Trans-National Genetic Distance and Genetic Identity of Barak Valley Hindus en Route the Journey of Mankind from Africa for ABO Gene

The present study aimed at estimating the genetic distance and genetic identity between Barak Valley Hindus and other twenty four nations for ABO blood group gene along the route of historic journey of mankind from Africa as proposed by Stephen Oppenheimer to gain insights on the evolutionary relationship and genetic closeness of the Hindus with other nations. Barak Valley Zone, located in southern part of Assam state in North East India, has inhabited the major endogamous group, the Hindus, for several centuries. Over the last few decades, they have maintained distinct culture and life style. This study used ABO gene frequency data of these populations to estimate Nei’s standard genetic distance and genetic identity of population genetics between Barak Valley Hindus and other nations. The historic journey of mankind commenced from Africa about 200,000 years ago ( www.bradshawfoundation.com). Genetic distance estimate ranged from 0.07 to 5.18%. Barak Valley Hindus (BVH) showed relatively low genetic distance for ABO gene with the populations of Saudi Arabia (0.07%), India (0.13%), Borneo (0.40%), Russia (0.59%), Central Asia (0.60%), Siberia (0.60%), South China (0.71%) and Sri Lanka (0.93%) suggesting high genetic identity and possible evolutionary relationship of BVH during migration with these nations. But the BVH showed highest genetic distance with Australia (5.18%) followed by Norway (4.13%), Sudan (3.89%) and Sweden (3.60%) indicating low genetic identity of BVH with these nations. Migration was not the key determining factor in changing the ABO gene frequency in human populations.

P2-S5.02 Confined outreach clinics: increasing utilisation of HIV/STI clinic services by IDUs in hard to reach rural settings: an example from North-East India

Issue Clinics in fixed locations have limited effectiveness in HIV/STI prevention programs among injecting drug users (IDUs) in North-East India. Mountainous terrain and poor roads make physical accessibility difficult, and designated IDU clinics are often stigmatised by the general community, reducing acceptability among IDUs. Setting Nagaland state in Northeast India has a porous border with Myanmar and is characterised by difficult terrain, poor infrastructure, and a conservative religious climate generally intolerant of IDUs. HIV and STI prevalence rates among IDUs are among the highest in India. HIV prevalence is 1.8% (2008), while syphilis prevalence is as high as 17% (2009) and chlamydia as high as 13% (2009) in some districts. Project Project ORCHID, funded by Avahan India, has been implementing HIV/STI targeted interventions among IDUs in Nagaland since 2004. In response to the high prevalence of STIs and the clinic access challenges facing IDUs, an outreach clinic service known as the Confined Outreach Clinic (COC) was developed. The COCs are conducted by trained clinical staff and outreach teams in locations convenient to the IDUs. Timing and locations for the clinics are chosen by the IDU community in consultation with the outreach teams to ensure maximum acceptability and attendance. Clinical services follow standardised national guidelines. They provide STI treatment as well as HIV/STI prevention and referral services. To maximise acceptability, some general medical services are also provided. Outcomes Clinic visits more than doubled after introduction of this model, from 1734 (July–December 2009) to 4347 (January–June 2010), while the number of individuals accessing the clinic increased by 68%. The COC model therefore not only increased population coverage but also the number of repeat clinic visits within the reporting period. COCs are a low cost and highly acceptable model of service delivery for IDUs, effective in improving poor service uptake.

P2-S5.10 Sexual behaviours among injecting drug users (IDUs) in North-East India

BackgroundThe North-East Indian states of Nagaland and Manipur have among the highest HIV prevalence in India, fuelled by an epidemic of injecting drug use. In 2008, the HIV prevalence among...