State Wildlife Agencies Research Articles

Progress of the National Bobwhite Conservation Initiative

Northern bobwhites (Colinus virginianus) have declined precipitously over 5 decades because of a decline in habitat, largely a result of agricultural intensification and inadequate management of natural plant succession. In response, quail biologists developed strategic and operational plans, and formed a national partnership of state and federal agencies, bobwhite institutions, non-government organizations, universities and private citizens. The early history of these efforts was reviewed in 2006 at the Sixth National Quail Symposium. Over the past 10 years, exponential growth occurred, including establishment of a home for national bobwhite conservation at the University of Tennessee, and funding from the National Fish and Wildlife Foundation, the United States Fish Wildlife Service Pitmann-Robertson (Federal Aid in Wildlife Restoration Program), individual state agencies and citizens. The result in 2016 is the National Bobwhite Conservation Initiative (NBCI), a 25-state consortium of state wildlife agencies and partners, led by the National Bobwhite Technical Committee and NBCI Management Board. In 2011, NBCI published an updated strategic restoration plan, and spatially-explicit planning tool, NBCI 2.0, followed in 2014 by an implementation plan, the NBCI Coordinated Implementation Program (CIP). We update the history of the NBCI, including changes in funding mechanisms, leadership, administration, and technical programs, and we assess current opportunities and the future of bobwhite conservation.

A Comparison of Two Quail Abundance Indices and Their Relationship to Quail Harvest in Texas

Surveys are used to monitor status and trends of animal populations. However, different surveys may give conflicting results for the same species and population being surveyed. Therefore, we compared results of the North American Breeding Bird Survey (BBS) and Texas Parks and Wildlife (TPW) roadside counts for scaled quail (Callipepla squamata) and northern bobwhite (Colinus virginianus) in Texas. Surveys were compared on both an ecoregion and statewide basis. The BBS and TPW surveys gave similar trends for bobwhites and scaled quail for 5 of 8, and 3 of 5 ecoregions, respectively. Survey trends differed at the statewide scale for both species. We compared estimated statewide harvest as an independent index of quail population status in Texas with results from both surveys. The TPW roadside survey was more closely related to estimated statewide harvest for northern bobwhites (R2 0.86, P 0.001) and scaled quail (R2 0.75, P 0.0001) than the BBS survey (R2 0.60, P 0.001; and R2 0.35, P 0.0001, respectively). Survey methods, sampling frameworks, and issues of scale are important variables to consider when interpreting survey results. The BBS provides useful data on quail populations at a multi-state or national scale. However, most state wildlife agencies require surveys that provide information at finer spatial scales. Citation: DeMaso, S. J., M. J. Peterson, J. R. Purvis, N. J. Silvy, and J. L. Cooke. 2002. A comparison of two quail abundance indices and their relationship to quail harvest in Texas. Pages 206–212 in S. J. DeMaso, W. P. Kuvlesky, Jr., F. Hernandez, and M. E. Berger, eds. Quail V: Proceedings of the Fifth National Quail Symposium. Texas Parks and Wildlife, Austin, TX.

Translocation as a Population Restoration Technique for Northern Bobwhites: A Review and Synthesis

Northern bobwhite (Colinus virginianus) abundance has declined precipitously for decades across much of the species range, to the point of widespread local, regional, and statewide extirpation. Because of successful translocations of other gallinaceous birds, bobwhite enthusiasts increasingly call for use of the approach. Consequently, the National Bobwhite Technical Committee (NBTC), on behalf of state agencies, requested a review and recommendation by the NBTC Science Subcommittee. Thus, our paper is co-authored by invited experts and includes reviews of peer-reviewed publications, manuscripts in these proceedings, state agency reports, experience by co-authors, and a survey of perspectives on translocations by state wildlife agency members of the NBTC. We discuss the state of science on key aspects of bobwhite conservation, offer best management practices (BMPs) for using translocation as a potential bobwhite restoration technique, and suggest ways to reduce uncertainty about implementation. We note that although conservationists operate on a relatively solid foundation of improving bobwhite abundance via increased quantity, connectivity, and quality of habitat, population restoration success to- date is relatively rare and unpredictable. Similarly, some past translocations have been unreliable with an abundance of failures and inadequate experimental designs. We conclude that because of major uncertainties regarding habitat, population phenomena (e.g., Allee effect) and restoration techniques, outcomes of translocations remain unpredictable; thus, future efforts must be a part of sound and rigorous peer-reviewed research. To improve scientific efforts, we recommend the following BMPs for future translocations: (1) target bobwhite abundance should be >800 post-translocation which will likely necessitate ≥600 ha of suitable and accessible habitat while a larger (e.g., >800 ha) area will be needed in areas with lower carrying capacity and when sites are highly fragmented or isolated, (2) personnel should identify and avoid stressors to bobwhites in all phases of the translocation process (i.e., capture, holding, transportation, and release), (3) source populations should be disease free and from similar environments and latitude; preferably from the nearest suitable source, (4) conspecifics should be present on recipient sites (5) birds should be released just before the breeding season (i.e., March or April), and (6) the translocation should incorporate robust short- and long-term bird (i.e., abundance and/or density) and habitat monitoring efforts (i.e., the Coordinated Implementation Program (CIP) of the National Bobwhite Conservation Initiative (NBCI)). In conclusion, we note that translocation of bobwhites is not a panacea for broad scale restoration of bobwhites; however, the technique should remain at the forefront of bobwhite science, taking into account knowledge of the species’ life history and ecology, so that a practical and reliable solution can be developed. We recognize this paper is just the beginning of vigorous debate, testing of concepts, and on-the ground implementation of successful bobwhite conservation.

Structured decision making as a framework for large‐scale wildlife harvest management decisions

AbstractFish and wildlife harvest management at large spatial scales often involves making complex decisions with multiple objectives and difficult tradeoffs, population demographics that vary spatially, competing stakeholder values, and uncertainties that might affect management decisions. Structured decision making (SDM) provides a formal decision analytic framework for evaluating difficult decisions by breaking decisions into component parts and separating the values of stakeholders from the scientific evaluation of management actions and uncertainty. The result is a rigorous, transparent, and values‐driven process. This decision‐aiding process provides the decision maker with a more complete understanding of the problem and the effects of potential management actions on stakeholder values, as well as how key uncertainties can affect the decision. We use a case study to illustrate how SDM can be used as a decision‐aiding tool for management decision making at large scales. We evaluated alternative white‐tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) buck‐harvest regulations in New York designed to reduce harvest of yearling bucks, taking into consideration the values of the state wildlife agency responsible for managing deer, as well as deer hunters. We incorporated tradeoffs about social, ecological, and economic management concerns throughout the state. Based on the outcomes of predictive models, expert elicitation, and hunter surveys, the SDM process identified management alternatives that optimized competing objectives. The SDM process provided biologists and managers insight about aspects of the buck‐harvest decision that helped them adopt a management strategy most compatible with diverse hunter values and management concerns.

Access to public resources on private property: Resident hunter perceptions of the commercialization of wildlife in Montana

The management of public wildlife resources on private property presents unique challenges for state wildlife agencies. Some private landowners in Montana have attempted to capitalize on the public wildlife found on their land by leasing the property to outfitters for the exclusive use of their paying clientele. This practice has created a rift between landowners and outfitters versus public hunters. This exploratory study examines hunter perceptions of the commercialization of wildlife in a western state, and the impact they believe it is having on the hunting experience. Qualitative data were obtained from a mail survey of Montana resident elk hunters. Analysis revealed that hunters are concerned about a perceived decline in hunting opportunities on private land that is occurring, at least in part, as a result of the commercialization of wildlife in the state. The findings enhance our understanding of hunting issues on private property in modern society. Management implications:●The study indicates that hunting is an important recreational activity for resident hunters in Montana.●Wildlife is a public trust resource in the United States that is found on both public and private land.●Hunters are concerned about the commercialization of wildlife in Montana and believe it contributes to less access to private land for hunting.●Access to public wildlife resources on inaccessible state land is an important issue to hunters.

Revised State Wildlife Action Plans Offer New Opportunities for Pollinator Conservation in the USA

ABSTRACT: The 56 US State Wildlife Action Plans provide strategic guidance and direction for the state, territorial, and federal wildlife and natural resource management agencies in the United States. Funding associated with these plans supports a broad spectrum of state wildlife diversity and nongame programs, state natural heritage programs, and state natural areas programs. The implementation of these plans is being coordinated by the state and territorial fish and wildlife agencies, which have legal management authority for much of the native pollinator diversity in the United States. Forty of the 56 plans published in 2005 included taxa from one or more pollinator groups, including representatives of the insect orders Lepidoptera, Hymenoptera, and Diptera (Insecta), as well as nectar-feeding bats and hummingbirds. We document specific examples of pollinator conservation projects that have been conducted by state fish and wildlife agencies between 2005 and 2015 in order to achieve conservation objecti...

Professionalism between the pages

Professionalism between the pages

Measuring the Relationship between Sportfishing Trip Expenditures and Anglers’ Species Preferences

AbstractWe examined the relationship between fishing trip expenditures and anglers’ species preferences from a survey of Oklahoma resident anglers conducted in 2014. Understanding patterns in fishing trip expenditures is important because a significant share of state wildlife agency revenue comes from taxes on purchases of fishing equipment. Presently, there is little research that addresses the question of how spending levels vary within groups of sportspersons, including anglers. We used regression analysis to identify a relationship between trip spending and several preference variables, and included controls for other characteristics of fishing trips, such as location, party size, and duration. We received 780 surveys for a response rate of 26%, but only 506 were useable due to missing data or nonfishing responses. Average trip expenditures were approximately US$140, regardless of species preferences, but anglers who preferred to fish for trout and black bass tended to spend more than those who preferred to fish for catfish and panfish. These results were even more pronounced when location was considered, those who last fished at lakes spending more than those who fished at rivers or ponds. The results underscore the differences in spending among anglers with different preferred species and fishing locations.Received September 18, 2015; accepted March 9, 2016 Published online June 27, 2016

Understanding Peer Influence in Hunter Harvest Decisions Using Social Network Theory and Analysis

ABSTRACTState wildlife agencies are increasingly seeking the advice and cooperation of wildlife stakeholders, including that of private hunting cooperatives. While there is some evidence that the interests and actions of private deer cooperatives align with those of state wildlife agencies, little is known about the internal social mechanisms that explain this. Social network theory and analysis can shed some light on these internal group dynamics. This article used egocentric network analysis to examine the effect of peer groups on the antlerless harvest decisions of individuals in private deer cooperatives. Our primary result was that the members of one’s egocentric network influence the harvest behavior of that individual, providing some evidence for the potential of social network theory and analysis to understand and improve on the strategies used to address a variety of resource-related problems in wildlife management and conservation.

Captive white‐tailed deer industry—Current status and growing threat

ABSTRACTIn 2012, 10 states in the United States debated legislation to introduce or expand captive white‐tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) breeding operations. Because this was far more than any prior year, we surveyed 37 state wildlife agencies in the eastern contiguous United States to determine the scope and intensity of captive operations and state‐specific requirements. Thirty‐seven states provided some data. Twenty of 32 states reported 5–1,332 breeding facilities holding >140,000 white‐tailed deer; 20 of 29 states reported 1–150 shooting preserves holding >25,000 white‐tailed deer. Captive white‐tailed deer were classified as wildlife in 12 of 22 states (55%), livestock in 8 states (36%), and game animals in 2 states (9%). Only 5 of 21 states (24%) had minimum acreage requirements for breeding facilities, but 13 of 20 states (65%) did for shooting preserves. Four of 16 states (25%) had a minimum release time before deer could be shot in a preserve. Six of 21 states (29%) had stocking density requirements, with 6 of 25 states (24%) listing habitat requirements for captive white‐tailed deer facilities. Seventeen of 23 states (74%) required external tagging, and 24 of 27 states (89%) allowed consumption of white‐tailed deer killed in shooting preserves. We believe the captive white‐tailed deer industry undermines the North American Model of Wildlife Conservation, threatens the health of wild deer, and undermines the public's perception of hunting. A better understanding of this growing industry will help managers safeguard free‐ranging white‐tailed deer populations and the future of deer hunting. © 2016 The Wildlife Society.

Michigan Mute Swan Management: A Case Study to Understand Contentious Natural Resource Management Issues

ABSTRACTU.S. state fish and wildlife agencies have responded to perceived ecological and social threats posed by mute swans by implementing population control strategies. In Michigan, some stakeholder groups have vocally opposed particular control activities. To better understand and characterize key aspects of the underlying media dialogue about mute swan management in Michigan, one factor in the development of public perceptions about wildlife issues, we conducted a qualitative content analysis of Michigan-specific online news articles. Results revealed tensions between stakeholder groups about management priorities were rooted in differing ideas about healthy social and ecological systems, appropriate wildlife behavior, and the acceptability of lethal control (i.e., shooting living birds). Characterizing which stakeholder groups aligned with particular arguments might allow managers to tailor and direct messaging to specific audiences.

Optimizing regulatory requirements to aid in the implementation of compensatory mitigation

Optimizing regulatory requirements to aid in the implementation of compensatory mitigation

Captive-breeding of captive and wild-reared Gunnison sage-grouse.

Gunnison sage-grouse (Centrocercus minimus) distribution in North America has decreased over historical accounts and has received federal protection under the Endangered Species Act. We investigated captive-breeding of a captive-flock of Gunnison sage-grouse created from individuals reared in captivity from wild-collected eggs we artificially incubated. We also introduced wild-reared individuals into captivity. Our captive-flock successfully bred and produced fertile eggs. We controlled the timing and duration of male-female breeding interactions and facilitated a semi-natural mating regime. Males established a strutting ground in captivity that females attended for mate selection. In 2010, we allowed females to establish eight nests, incubate, and hatch eggs. Females in captivity were more successful incubating nests than raising broods. Although there are many technical, financial, and logistic issues associated with captive-breeding, we recommend that federal biologists and managers work collaboratively with state wildlife agencies and consider developing a captive-flock as part of a comprehensive conservation strategy for a conservation-reliant species like the Gunnison sage-grouse. The progeny produced from a captive-rearing program could assist in the recovery if innovative approaches to translocation are part of a comprehensive proactive conservation program.

Vetoing Wetland Permits Under Section 404(c) of the Clean Water Act: A History of Inter-Federal Agency Controversy and Reform

For most of its four-decade history, section 404(c) of the Clean Water Act could have been considered to be a sleeper provision of environmental law. The provision authorizes the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) to overrule permits for discharges of dredged or fill material issued by the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers (Corps) where necessary to ensure protection of fish and wildlife habitat, municipal water supplies, and recreational areas against unacceptable adverse effects. This authority of one federal agency to veto the decisions of another federal agency is quite unusual and perhaps unprecedented in environmental law. The exceptional nature of section 404(c) may explain why EPA has employed it only thirteen times in over four decades and just three times since 1990. When EPA has invoked its 404(c) authority, it has often done so to support the positions of federal and state fish and wildlife agencies and, perhaps surprisingly, Corps field-office officials. These agencies managed for eighteen years—between 1990 and 2008—to conduct the 404 permit program, one of the largest federal permit programs, without a single 404(c) veto, helped by the use of an interagency review process authorized by section 404(q) of the Act. The most recent three 404(c) actions—two involving large- scale mining operations and the other involving a large-scale flood control project—have all generated significant widespread controversy, and the fate of none of them is finally resolved. Their notoriety may disguise what we believe to be a chief lesson of having no 404(c) vetoes during the eighteen year period and just three vetoes in a quarter-century: the evolution of the Corps as an environmental agency, a notable achievement of section 404(c), since it has greatly furthered the statute’s goal of restoring and maintaining the chemical, physical, and biological integrity of the nation’ s waters.

Hunters are a fundamental component of northern bobwhite quail conservation

Hunters have been a fundamental component of northern bobwhite quail conservation for most of the past century. Bobwhite quail hunters funded the first modern comprehensive life history study of a wild vertebrate in the 1920s to understand causes responsible for population declines. This investigation identified a causal link between frequent applications of prescribed fire and persistence of bobwhite quail populations in the Southeastern United States, and provided the foundation for contemporary fire ecology science. Since then, hunters in the Southeastern and Midwestern United States have funded numerous other bobwhite quail research and conservation efforts. Research and conservation efforts funded by quail hunters in Texas continue to be especially notable. Non-governmental organizations, and academia, as well as state and federal wildlife agencies have been the conduits for efforts to sustain bobwhite quail populations because predominant land uses no longer support bobwhite quail.

History of the Science of Wldlife Fertility Control: Reflections of a 25-Year International Conference Series

The science of wildlife fertility control originated in the mid-twentieth century, out of a growing need for alternatives to lethal controls for selected wildlife populations, where traditional lethal controls were no longer legal, wise, safe or publicly acceptable. Until late in the century the science was uncoordinated and without significant funding or cooperation among investigators. A 25-year conference series brought scientists engaged in this endeavor together, from around the world and set the stage for more rapid development and research support. In rapid fashion, steroid related efforts gave way to contraceptive vaccines and gonadotropic-releasing hormone (GnRH) agonists and by the turn of century actual successful management of certain species was well underway. This included wild horses, urban deer, captive zoo populations, and even African elephants. However, an unanticipated backlash from state and federal wildlife agencies, and some animal protection groups slowed progress, particularly in application of the science to free-ranging wildlife populations. Today the science has progressed to the point where actual management could alleviate many problems but the sociopolitical dimensions of this science have slowed progress and thrown up many non-scientific hurdles (state legislation in particular). This short history presents a classic case of a general public and political system that cannot keep pace with new scientific developments.

Stakeholder engagement in wildlife management: Does the public trust doctrine imply limits?

ABSTRACTRecent evolution of the wildlife management institution in the United States includes adoption of good governance principles, wherein stakeholders expect and are provided opportunities for input and involvement in making decisions about public wildlife resources. Concurrently and perhaps paradoxically, state wildlife agencies are encouraged to operate with fidelity to the public trust doctrine and the principles of public trust administration, which may require trust administrators (i.e., appointed commissioners and public wildlife managers) to keep trust beneficiaries (i.e., theoretically all citizens, but especially special interests) at arm's length (i.e., restricted from having undue control) with respect to directly influencing decision‐making. In addition, public trust administration includes citizens taking responsibility for holding trust administrators accountable and requires government to provide citizens recourse for doing so. In practice, however, accountability typically is achieved through political influence or litigation, both routes antithetical to efficient public trust resource administration. This set of potentially conflicting expectations—practicing good governance through citizens' engagement in wildlife decision‐making processes, limiting beneficiaries' direct influence on decisions of trust administrators, and citizens' responsibility for holding trust administrators accountable—creates an apparent conundrum for state wildlife agencies. As a catalyst for deliberation about the implications of public trust doctrine in the wildlife profession, we describe potential problems and suggest ways for public wildlife managers to perform their responsibilities with due diligence to the combined expectations and requirements of good governance and the public trust doctrine. © 2014 The Wildlife Society.

Vetoing Wetland Permits Under Section 404(c) of the Clean Water Act: A History of Inter-Federal Agency Controversy and Reform

For most of its four-decade history, section 404(c) of the Clean Water Act could have been considered to be a sleeper provision of environmental law. The proviso authorizes the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) overrule permits for discharges of dredged or fill material issued by the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers (Corps) where necessary to ensure protection of fish and wildlife habitat, municipal water supplies, and recreational areas against unacceptable adverse effects. This authority of one federal agency to veto the decisions of another federal agency is quite unusual, perhaps unprecedented in environmental law. The exceptional nature of section 404(c) may explain why EPA has employed it only thirteen times in over four decades, just three times since 1990. When EPA has invoked its 404(c) authority, it has often done so to support the positions of federal and state fish and wildlife agencies and, perhaps surprisingly, Corps field-office officials. These agencies managed for eighteen years — between 1990 and 2008 — to conduct the 404 permit program, one of the largest federal permit programs, without a single 404(c) veto, helped by the use of an interagency review process authorized by section 404(q) of the Act. The most recent three 404(c) actions — two involving large-scale mining operations and the other a large-scale flood control project — have all generated significant widespread controversy, and the fate none of them is finally resolved. Their notoriety may disguise what we believe to be a chief lesson of having no 404(c) vetoes during the eighteen year period and just three vetoes in a quarter-century: the evolution of the Corps as an environmental agency, a notable achievement of section 404(c), since it has greatly furthered the statute’s goal of restoring and maintaining the chemical, physical, and biological integrity of the nation’s waters.

Co-orientation of State Wildlife Agency Personnel and Wildlife Management Area Stakeholders Regarding Wildlife Habitat Management Activities in Virginia

Natural resource managers frequently make decisions in the public interest, yet research suggests managers often hold values and attitudes that differ from those of their stakeholders. Applying the co-orientation theory of communication, we contrasted beliefs of Virginia Department of Game and Inland Fisheries managers (n = 77) with those of recreational users (n = 726) of Virginia's wildlife management areas (WMAs). Although managers and users both expressed support for many of the same land management practices, managers generally expressed stronger support. Managers also more accurately predicted WMA users' beliefs on land management, compared to users' predictions of managers' beliefs. Managers and WMA users held different views about timber harvesting, which suggests it is an area with high potential for controversy and needs improved communication efforts. Frequency-based and statistical co-orientation analysis yielded different, and potentially misleading, results; thus, policy-makers should use caution when interpreting communicative situations and designing subsequent public relations efforts.

Challenges for Multilevel Stakeholder Engagement in Public Trust Resource Governance

The trend in wildlife management over the last two decades has been to develop locally based approaches for responsiveness to local conditions, but some state wildlife agencies are finding the amount of staff time required to service this approach prohibitive. Although local engagement strategies have been lauded as assuring that public trust obligations of state government to citizens are met, we can expect that states with a local focus as their operational level of stakeholder engagement may opt to change their approach to reflect their resource limitations. We argue for comprehensive regional level effort to understand stakeholders augmented with local engagement processes where needed to deal with special circumstances in smaller areas within a region. Such an approach can be anticipated to have implications for stakeholder engagement and human dimensions research needs, which we discuss in the context of public trust resource administration and good governance of wildlife resources.