State Self-objectification Research Articles

She is seeking attention: Women's self-objectification and hostility toward peer selfies

Although the relationship between self-objectification and selfie-related behaviors has been extensively investigated, limited attention has been given to understanding how women's self-objectification impacts their attitudes toward peer selfies from the observer's perspective. This issue was addressed across four studies (N = 801). Specifically, Studies 1a and 1b (correlational research) revealed a positive association between women's self-objectification and hostile attitudes toward peer selfies. In Studies 2 and 3 (experimental research), a causal relationship was established, such that women with higher levels of state self-objectification were more inclined to attach negative tags to other women's selfies. Notably, perceived attention-seeking motivation plays a mediating role in the process (Studies 1b, 2, and 3). Furthermore, these effects occurred not only in response to selfies taken by highly attractive women but also in response to targets who are moderately attractive or average-looking (Study 3). These findings bridge a significant gap in the field of self-objectification and social interaction on social media.

How social media images of sexualized young women elicit appearance commentary from their peers and reinforce objectification

Social media platforms like Instagram enable users to share, view, and provide feedback on images, including photographs of oneself (e.g., selfies). In a 3 × 2 between-subjects online experiment, we investigated how women evaluate and react to photographs of their peers on social media and the role that feedback might play in both objectification of others and oneself. U.S. adult young women (N = 256; Mage = 20.06, SDage = 1.57) viewed social media images of sexualized peers, non-sexualized peers, or landscapes (control). Then, they provided feedback on the images via social media hashtags (#) or not (tagging vs. no tagging). Results revealed that participants who viewed sexualized peers demonstrated the highest levels of state self-objectification and were more likely to dehumanize the women in the photos. Hashtags generated by participants indicated that those who viewed sexualized peers engaged in greater appearance-related objectification, specifically related to body parts, and sexual objectification than those who viewed non-sexualized peers. In addition, generating hashtags that specifically focused on body parts heightened viewers’ state self-objectification. These findings illustrate the complexities of social media content production and consumption, particularly for young women.

Brains over beauty: A preregistered test of the effects of objectification on women's cognitive performance.

The present study was a preregistered, well-powered experimental test of findings related to the effect of state self-objectification and anticipation of the sexualized male gaze on women's cognitive performance. College women (n = 407) performed a working memory task in one of three randomly assigned conditions. In the experimental conditions (self-objectification and male gaze), women completed the task while being video recorded from the neck down. In the male gaze condition, participants were told their videos would later be evaluated by men as part of a separate dating study. Women in the control condition were not video recorded. Results indicated women experienced a moderate increase in state self-objectification in both experimental conditions. However, compared to the control condition, women in the experimental conditions did not show reduced performance on the working memory task (in either latency or accuracy), decreases in body satisfaction, or increases in negative mood. Across conditions, state self-objectification was not associated with accuracy or latency on the working memory task. Mixed findings concerning objectification's effect on cognitive performance may be attributed to variability in experimental manipulations and dependent variables employed in this area of research.

Objectifying the classroom: Examining self-objectification and its effects on cognitive resources within virtual class environments

Videoconferencing platforms (i.e., Zoom) allow for continuous appearance monitoring via the self-view setting – raising concerns about self-objectification. Prior research indicates that self-objectification is associated with diminished cognitive performance, which may affect learning. This experiment examined how videoconferencing camera settings affect body image and cognitive performance. Female college students (n = 167) participated in a Zoom call with various camera settings: camera with self-view (i.e., others could see them and they could see themselves on screen), camera without self-view (i.e., others on the call could see them, but they could not see themselves), and camera off. After random assignment to condition, participants completed a collaborative exercise, answered questions related to self-objectification and body anxiety, and took a math test. Camera settings had no effect on state self-objectification or appearance anxiety. Participants in the camera without self-view condition demonstrated worse performance on the math test than those who had their cameras off, but no other pairwise comparisons were significant. Surprisingly, high trait self-objectifiers were not more sensitive to self-view camera exposure, though high trait self-objectification was associated with greater appearance anxiety across conditions. State self-objectification did not predict cognitive performance. Still, findings demonstrate a meaningful effect of camera settings on cognitive performance.

A pilot randomized trial of self-compassion writing for young adult women engaged in emotional eating in the context of appearance-related cyberbullying.

To investigate the effectiveness of a 10-min self-compassion writing in alleviating body dissatisfaction, self-objectification, and emotional eating in young adult women engaged in emotional eating in the context of appearance-related cyberbullying. A total of 175 Chinese young adult women (Mage = 20.90, SD = 1.65) were randomly assigned to one of the three groups: self-compassion, distraction, or control group. At baseline, participants completed assessments of trait and state body dissatisfaction, trait self-objectification, trait self-compassion, emotional eating, and positive and negative affect. Then they needed to recall an appearance-related cyberbullying victimization experience, after which state body dissatisfaction, state self-objectification, and positive and negative affect were measured. After the intervention, participants completed measures of state body dissatisfaction, state self-objectification, positive and negative affect, state self-compassion, and a food-choosing task. At 1-month follow-up, participants completed measures of trait body dissatisfaction, trait self-objectification, trait self-compassion, and emotional eating. At post-intervention, state body dissatisfaction and negative affect were significantly lower, and positive affect was significantly higher in both the self-compassion and distraction groups compared to control. State self-objectification was significantly lower in the self-compassion group than in the other two groups. At 1-month follow-up, the self-compassion group showed significantly lower levels of body dissatisfaction than the control group. The findings provide initial evidence for the potential of self-compassion writing in reducing state self-objectification and state body dissatisfaction in the context of appearance-related cyberbullying. Appearance-related cyberbullying, a common phenomenon in social networking sites, has been documented to associate with appearance-related concerns and disordered eating in young adult women. However, effective interventions that can reduce these negative associations are scarce. This study preliminarily found that a brief self-compassion writing could be a potential intervention for reducing state self-objectification and state body dissatisfaction in young adult women who had suffered appearance-related cyberbullying.

A comparison of the impact of exposure to fit ideal and non-fit ideal body shapes in fitspiration imagery on women

Previous research indicates a negative impact of exposure to fitspiration on women's mood, self-esteem, and body satisfaction. Fitspiration typically features thin and toned bodies, but there is some variation in the body types shown, which may influence its effects on viewers. Participants (N = 605women) were randomly allocated to view fit ideal, non-fit ideal, or neutral control images from Instagram, and completed state measures of appearance self-esteem, self-objectification, body satisfaction, and negative mood before and after image exposure. Women in the fitspiration conditions also reported level of state appearance comparison with women depicted and how inspired they were to do more exercise. Fit ideal and non-fit ideal images had a negative effect on body satisfaction. However, participants in the non-fit ideal condition showed an increase in state self-esteem and a decrease in state negative mood following image exposure, in contrast to the fit ideal condition. Condition did not have an impact on state self-objectification and there was no difference between fitspiration conditions in how inspired participants felt to do more exercise. State appearance comparison was correlated with change in self-esteem, negative mood, body satisfaction scores and with how inspired individuals felt to exercise. Small effect sizes and limitations indicate that replication of findings is required. However, the effects of viewing fitspiration imagery may depend on thinness and muscle tone of models shown, and level of comparison with people portrayed.

Objectification and racial homophily among Black men who have sex with men logged on to Grindr

Black men who have sex with men (MSM) are disproportionately impacted by HIV infection. Evidence suggests that the racial disparity in HIV incidence among MSM may be due, in part, to high rates of racial homophily (i.e., same-race partnering) within the sexual networks of Black MSM. Among subpopulations with high HIV prevalence, such as Black MSM, homophily facilitates the formation of relatively closed networks and thus efficient disease propagation. Structural racism, including residential and occupational segregation, is a major contributor to racial homophily, but less is known about the interpersonal dynamics that may drive patterns of sexual partner selection within people's local contexts. The current study tested one hypothesis that objectification by non-Black men may lead to increased rates of same-race partnering for Black MSM. Specifically, in a vignette-style experiment, Black MSM (N = 199; Mage = 31.6) were recruited from Grindr, a geosocial networking application that connects people with physically-proximate users, and were exposed to a sexually-objectifying Grindr user. Compared to when an objectifying partner was Black, White Partner Race led participants to endorse less likelihood of engagement, an effect transmitted through its intermediate impact on state self-objectification. Critically, participants in this sample reported moderate rates of same-race partnering from Grindr (approximately 40% of past-year Grindr partners were also Black), and this mechanism was observed only among those Black MSM reporting the highest rates (i.e., 84th percentile of past-year Grindr homophily). Results suggest that objectification does not cause racial homophily, but it may interact with people's local contexts to reinforce existing racial homophily within the sexual networks of Black MSM. Implications for both HIV prevention and future research are discussed.

The effects of daily Instagram use on state self-objectification, well-being, and mood for young women.

The effects of daily Instagram use on state self-objectification, well-being, and mood for young women.

The Effect of Experimental Manipulation of Self-Objectification on Creative Potential in Adolescents

ABSTRACT The study explored the impact of experimentally induced state self-objectification on creative potential in visual domain in mid-adolescence. The experiment was conducted in a group of 140 adolescents at the age of 14–16: 70 boys (M age = 15.21; SD = .81) and 70 girls (Mage = 14.99; SD = 0.83), randomly allocated to two groups: experimental and control. The state self-objectification was obtained by means of a magnifying mirror, and measured by the State Self-Objectification Questionnaire. In both groups the Test for Creative Thinking – Drawing Production was administered twice (in A and B versions, randomly selected). Statistical analyses were performed with a mixed model ANOVA (2 drawings x 2 groups x 2 sexes). Results showed that mid-adolescent girls are susceptible to state self-objectification to a greater extent than the boys, and the experimentally induced state self-objectification has an impact on creative potential in the visual domain in the groups of adolescent boys and girls.

Social Media-related Body Dissatisfaction, Beauty Ideal Internalization, and State Self-Objectification

Social Media-related Body Dissatisfaction, Beauty Ideal Internalization, and State Self-Objectification

Do you see what I see? The influence of self-objectification on appearance anxiety, intrinsic motivation, interoceptive awareness, and physical performance

Self-objectification negatively impacts body image, mental health, and cognitive performance outcomes in women and has been correlated with poorer physical performance. The purpose of this study was to determine if trying on a swimsuit (versus a sweater) impacted state self-objectification, body shame, social physique anxiety, intrinsic motivation, bodily awareness, and physical performance in university women. Female undergraduate students (N = 52) were randomly assigned to try on either a swimsuit (objectification condition) or sweater (control condition) and complete measures of self-objectification, body shame, appearance anxiety, intrinsic motivation, and interoceptive awareness, and perform a series of balance tasks. Women in the swimsuit condition reported higher state self-objectification, body-related shame and appearance anxiety, and lower intrinsic motivation compared to women in the sweater condition. In addition, women in the swimsuit condition restricted body movements during a 1-legged stand balance task. Consistent with objectification theory, women may have made smaller physical movements in an attempt to hide or cover up the body. Findings could have implications for promoting positive experiences during physical activity for women, such as in sport, exercise or rehabilitation settings.

Ambulatory and longitudinal relationships between mindfulness and eating problems: The mediating role of self-objectification

Previous research has shown a negative association between mindfulness and its facets and eating problems. Few studies have examined the mechanism involved between them. As an important cognitive factor of eating problems, self-objectification may be a mediating variable in the prediction of eating problems as they relate to mindfulness. We examined the relation between mindfulness and its facets and eating problems using an ambulatory assessment and follow-up test as well as the mediating effect of self-objectification. A total of 106 college students were recruited to complete the full study. State mindfulness, state self-objectification, and eating problems in daily life were measured by an ambulatory assessment. Trait self-objectification and overall eating problems were measured at a two-month follow-up. For the ambulatory assessment, state mindfulness and five facets of mindfulness could not predict eating problems at the next moment in daily life, and there was no mediating effect of state self-objectification. For the longitudinal survey, acting with awareness, as a facet of mindfulness, can predict eating problems. Trait self-objectification mediated the relationship between acting with awareness and overall eating problems. The findings indicate that the association between mindfulness and eating problems mainly occurs at the trait level.

An examination of the direct and indirect effect of self-objectification and disordered eating

IntroductionObjectification theory argues that self-objectification confers risk for disordered eating (DE) both directly, and indirectly through a cascade of negative psychological consequences (e.g. low mood and self-conscious body monitoring). Robust cross-sectional evidence supports these relationships. However, these cross-sectional studies do not provide evidence for the complex intraindividual psychological processes outlined in objectification theory which purportedly contribute to DE.ObjectivesUsing an ecological momentary assessment design, the current study investigated the direct within-person effect between state self-objectification and DE and examined the indirect within-person effect of negative mood and body comparisons, on the relationship between state self-objectification and DE.MethodsTwo-hundred female participants (M=20.43 years, SD=4.60) downloaded a smartphone app which assessed momentary experiences of self-objectification, mood, body comparisons, and DE six times per day at random intervals for seven days.ResultsIndicated that self-objectification significantly predicted DE behaviours [95% CI 0.01, 0.03] and body comparisons [95% CI 0.32, 0.41]. However, the indirect effect of body comparisons on the relationship between state self-objectification and DE was not significant [95% CI -0.01, 0.00]. In the second mediation model, self-objectification significantly predicted DE behaviours [95% CI 0.01, 0.03], but did not significantly predict mood [95% CI -0.06, 0.03]. Similarly, the indirect effect of mood on the relationship between state self-objectification and DE was not significant [95% CI -0.00, 0.00].ConclusionsThese results enhance our understanding of objectification theory and suggest that self-objectification confers risk to DE directly. However, our findings do not support the indirect effect of self-objectification on DE through low mood or body comparisons.DisclosureNo significant relationships.

The effects of engaging in digital photo modifications and receiving favorable comments on women’s selfies shared on social media

The present study explores how the construction and distribution of selfies might interact with features of newer media to affect women who share selfies on social media. In particular, this study focuses on how specific types of photo modification and the nature of favorable audience feedback received on one’s images might exert influence on women’s state self-objectification and body image concerns. A 3 × 2 between-subjects lab experiment was conducted to explore how the type of photo modification (appearance modifications, nonappearance modifications, or no modifications [control]) and nature of positive feedback (appearance comments vs. nonappearance comments) affect state self-objectification, state appearance satisfaction, pro-cosmetic surgery attitudes, and willingness to distribute selfies on social media in the future. Results indicate that modifying selfies leads to less appearance satisfaction and lower pro-cosmetic surgery attitudes. Receiving appearance comments on selfies heightens state self-objectification, regardless of the type of photo modification. In addition, the more women self-objectified, the more inclined they were to share similarly objectifying selfies on social media in the future. The findings of this work provide a more comprehensive understanding of how women are impacted by the images they share online.

The Relationship Between State Self-Objectification and Body Image in Mid-Adolescence: A Mediative Role of Self-Esteem

This paper investigates the impact of state self-objectification on body image and tests the role of self-esteem in this relationship. The study group consisted of 136 adolescents from a junior high school in Poland, aged 14 to 16 years: 65 boys (Mage = 15; SD = 0.79) and 71 girls (Mage = 14.93; SD = 0.82). Both age groups were relatively homogeneous in terms of demography and BMI. The study consisted of three phases. First, the participants completed demographic measures assessing demographic variables, body image, and self-esteem. The second phase was conducted one week later to induce a temporary state of self-objectification by means of a magnifying mirror. The third phase followed a ten-minute experimental exposure by filling in the Self-Objectification State Questionnaire. A mediation analysis was performed separately in both adolescent groups, according to the approach proposed by Hayes and Preacher (2014). Self-esteem mediated significantly the relationship between state self-objectification and body image. In the group of girls the mediation model produced a complete effect, whereas in the group of boys the mediation effect was partial.

The effects of sexualized video game characters and character personalization on women's self-objectification and body satisfaction

Female role models in video games are rare, and if they are present, they are often heavily sexualized. Objectification theory suggests that exposure to sexualized media characters increases self-objectification and decreases body satisfaction in female users. This study investigated the effect of playing a video game with a sexualized versus a nonsexualized character on women's experiences of self-objectification and body satisfaction. We further studied the effect of character personalization as a core feature of video games on the relation between sexualized avatars, self-objectification and body satisfaction. N = 262 female participants reported state self-objectification and body satisfaction after 30 min of playing the video game The Sims 4 with a sexualized or nonsexualized avatar that was either generic or personalized to look like the participant. We predicted that controlling for trait self-objectification, playing the game with a sexualized character would increase state self-objectification, especially in the personalized condition. Regarding the effect of character sexualization on body satisfaction, competing hypotheses based on priming vs. the Proteus effect were tested, considering character personalization and enjoyment of sexualization as moderators and controlling for trait body satisfaction. The current study did not find evidence for the proposed hypotheses. The findings are discussed in terms of the relevance of objectification theory in explaining effects of sexualized models in interactive media.

That selfie becomes you: examining taking and posting selfies as forms of self-objectification

ABSTRACT Evidence suggests that engaging in photo behaviors on social media is associated with negative body image (i.e. negative thoughts and feelings toward the body). One potential mechanism underlying these associations is that posting photos of oneself online may represent a form of self-objectification (i.e. thinking of the self as an object) which is associated with a number of negative consequences for body image. The current study investigated whether taking a selfie and posting it on social media would result in higher state self-objectification and objectified body consciousness. A sample of undergraduates in the United States (N = 187; 141 women; Mage = 19.03; 82.4% White) were asked to take a selfie or a control photo and then post the photo on Facebook or move on without posting the photo. Results indicated that, controlling for individuals’ level of self-monitoring and frequency of social media use, taking a selfie increased state self-objectification compared to taking a control photo, regardless of whether or not the photo was posted. There were no significant effects of taking a selfie on participants’ level of objectified body consciousness. Implications, limitations and suggestions for future research are discussed.

Whose Gaze is More Objectifying? An Experimental Study of College Women’s State Self-Objectification, Body Shame, Negative Mood, and Body Dissatisfaction

Objectification theory posits that women internalize males’ sexualizing gaze upon them and pay more attention to their appearance than to their feelings. To date, the literature has focused on the differences that males and females arouse in objectification experiences of women. In the current study, a tripartite comparison of the effects of self-gaze, female gaze, and male gaze upon women’s self-objectification, body dissatisfaction, body shame, appearance anxiety, and negative mood was made with Turkish college women. The study utilized a 3x2 repeated measures factorial design with six different imagined scenarios comprised of three types of gaze (self, female, and male) and two types of clothing (swimsuit, and sweater and jeans). All dependent variables were significantly affected by clothing type. Body shame, negative mood, appearance anxiety, and state SO were significantly affected by the type of gaze. Interaction effects were significant for body dissatisfaction and negative mood.

Appearance Framing versus Health Framing of Health Advice: Assessing the Effects of a YouTube Channel for Adolescent Girls

ABSTRACTThe present experimental study tested the effects of appearance framing of health advice on adolescent girls’ state self-objectification, appearance anxiety, and preference for appearance-enhancing products. The stimuli consisted of informative YouTube-style videos about doing yoga, drinking water, or using sunscreen, and these videos were either appearance-framed (experimental condition) or health-framed (control condition). In total, 154 adolescent girls (Mage = 15.67, SD = 1.07) participated in the experiment. The effect of appearance-framed videos on state self-objectification scores was moderated by age, such that the effect of viewing the appearance-framed videos positively predicted state self-objectification among the younger adolescents. In addition, self-objectification mediated the effect of condition on appearance anxiety and on their appearance-enhancing product preferences, again with the predicted effects supported for the younger adolescents in the sample.

“You look great!”: The effect of viewing appearance-related Instagram comments on women’s body image

Instagram is an increasingly popular social networking site where users post and share photos. The aim of the present study was to experimentally investigate the effect of viewing appearance-related comments accompanying Instagram images on women’s body image. Participants were 128 female undergraduate students who viewed a set of attractive images paired with a brief positive comment. For half the participants, comments were related to appearance; the other half viewed the same images with place-related comments. As predicted, exposure to appearance comments led to greater body dissatisfaction than exposure to place comments. There was no significant effect on state self-objectification, but trait self-objectification predicted increase in body dissatisfaction regardless of experimental condition. It was concluded that comments form an important and integral part of Instagram imagery, one that has implications for body image in its own right.