State Prison Research Articles

Mental health among lesbian, gay, bisexual and other non-heterosexual adults in United States prisons

Mental health among lesbian, gay, bisexual and other non-heterosexual adults in United States prisons

Treating women incarcerated in or at-risk of restrictive placements: A statement of the problem and considerations for practice.

Although limited, extant research suggests that incarcerated women are more likely than men to be placed in restrictive housing (e.g., administrative or disciplinary segregation) for disruptive behaviors that are linked to psychiatric symptomology and interpersonal deficits. Yet, few scholarly works discuss specific interventions or recommendations for treating incarcerated women in or at-risk of segregation. In this paper, we address the extent to which criminogenic and mental health needs of incarcerated women likely apply to women often placed in segregation, offer considerations for treatment planning when working with this subpopulation, and describe the process of piloting a manualized program specifically developed for segregated clients with women in a state prison. Descriptive data on 18 program participants are reported. Among program completers (n = 10), reductions in emotional stability, wellness, and criminal attitudes were endorsed from pre- to post-treatments and all women were rule-violation free at 3-month follow-up. Although preliminary outcomes are promising, controlled treatment outcome research is needed. We conclude with a call to advocate for the humane treatment and management of women who are in or prone to restrictive housing. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2022 APA, all rights reserved).

Racial And Ethnic Inequalities In COVID-19 Mortality Within Carceral Settings: An Analysis Of Texas Prisons.

The COVID-19 pandemic has taken a heightened toll on people incarcerated in prisons in the United States, with those incarcerated experiencing a higher rate of infection and mortality than the US population more generally. What is less well known is the degree to which COVID-19 outcomes differ among incarcerated populations, especially by race and ethnicity, where significant differences have been found among the US population as a whole. This knowledge gap is, in part, due to a lack of reporting of COVID-19 outcomes by race and ethnicity by most state prison systems. To shed light on this topic, we analyzed mortality patterns of the population incarcerated in Texas state prison facilities during both the year before (beginning April 1, 2019) and the first year of (beginning April 1, 2020) the COVID-19 pandemic. We used a unique data set of roster information from the Texas Department of Criminal Justice and medical examiner records. COVID-19 mortality was 1.61 and 2.12 times higher for Black and Hispanic populations, respectively, when compared with the White population in Texas prisons. Strategies for COVID-19 mitigation in carceral settings, such as vaccination and decarceration, should include an equity component to minimize disparities.

Context on our minds: Teaching “Thou shall not kill” in the context of a women’s prison and capital punishment

Teaching the legal materials in the Old Testament, particularly the Ten Commandments, within the context of seminary classrooms or local congregations can often become overly abstract and philosophical. I found this to be the case within my own teaching context until I began teaching in a Certificate of Theological Studies program at a state prison for women. Not only were some of the women in the program serving sentences for crimes of murder or manslaughter, one of the past graduates of the program, Kelly Gissendaner, was executed by the State of Georgia on September 30, 2015. Five days before her first scheduled date for execution, the class I was teaching discussed the implications of the sixth commandment, “you shall not murder.” Teaching this commandment within a classroom context in which one of their peers was facing capital punishment forever transformed the way I teach the decalogue and this commandment in particular. The experience serves as a constant reminder of the responsibility theological educators and ministers have when teaching and interpreting scripture with those within our sphere of influence.

Understanding the Needs and Programmatic Interests of Incarcerated Parents: Findings from a Prison Needs Assessment

ABSTRACT Incarcerated people – including those who are parents – have a diverse set of criminogenic needs and responsivity issues, raising questions about how best to support them in prison. Using a sample of 2,120 adults in state prison, this study examined self-reported needs and programs of interest, assessed how these varied by parenting status and between mothers and fathers, and considered predictors of individuals’ interest in parenting services. Participants most frequently reported needs related to negative peer influences, substance use, and housing; meanwhile employment and education programs received the most interest. Parents were more likely than non-parents to express needs regarding family relationships; mothers self-identified substance use and mental health treatment, whereas fathers more often called for employment programming. Being younger, a mother, or a parent of color, as well as having younger children and contact during prison, were associated with increased odds of expressing interest in parenting programs. These findings inform decisions around prison programming that better fits individuals’ self-identified needs.

Overdose and substance-related mortality after release from prison in Washington State: 2014–2019

BackgroundPersons released from prison are at an increased risk of mortality compared to the non-incarcerated population, particularly from drug- and opioid-related overdose. Contributors to overdose mortality vary with changing patterns of substance use and updating overdose and mortality statistics may help focus resources for persons released from prison. MethodsIn this retrospective cohort study, records for 33,811 people released from Washington State Department of Corrections prisons between 2014 and 2018 were linked to Washington State death records from 2014 to 2019. We calculated post-release mortality rates by cause of death, including overdose and substance-related mortality. Hazard ratios for risk factors for all-cause, non-overdose, and overdose mortality were estimated using Cox proportional hazards regression. Results862 deaths were identified among persons released from prison. The all-cause mortality rate was 747 per 100,000 person-years (95 % CI: 699–800), and drug overdose was the leading cause of death (216 per 100,000 person-years; 95 % CI: 190–244). Psychostimulant-related mortality (152 per 100,000 person-years; 95 % CI: 131–177) and opioid-related mortality (138 per 100,000 person-years; 95 % CI: 118–161) were the most prevalent among substance-related causes of death, with the greatest mortality risk occurring within two weeks after release. Older age at most recent release, previous incarceration, and drug-related convictions were significant risk factors for all-cause and overdose mortality within six years after release. ConclusionsPsychostimulants were the greatest contributors to substance-related mortality for persons released from Washington State prisons. Greater efforts to prevent psychostimulant- and opioid-related overdose are needed.

Troublesome Women: Gender, Crime, and Punishment in Antebellum Pennsylvania

Troublesome Women: Gender, Crime, and Punishment in Antebellum Pennsylvania

The Links Between Disability, Incarceration, And Social Exclusion.

Disabled people are disproportionately incarcerated and segregated from society through a variety of institutions. Still, the links between disability and incarceration are underexplored, limiting understanding of how carceral institutions punish and contribute to the social exclusion of disabled people. Using data from the 2016 Survey of Prison Inmates, we estimated disability prevalence in state and federal prisons, assessing disparities by race, ethnicity, and sex, and we examined inequities in previous residence in other "punitive" and "therapeutic" institutions. Sixty-six percent of incarcerated people self-reported a disability, with Black, Hispanic, and multiracial disabled men especially overrepresented in prisons. Compared with nondisabled incarcerated people, disabled incarcerated people were more likely to have previously resided in other institutions, such as juvenile detention facilities and psychiatric hospitals. Together, our findings advance the understanding of disability in carceral institutions, highlighting the need for policy interventions redressing the mechanisms contributing to the high incarceration risks of disabled people and the disabling nature of prisons and other carceral institutions.

The Challenge of Behavioral Health Surveillance in Criminal Justice Populations: Issues and Action Steps to Create a Nationally Representative Surveillance System.

Data from the Bureau of Justice Statistics occasional jail inmate and state prisoner surveys reveal that behavioral health issues-mental health and substance use disorders-are consistently the most prevalent health issues among criminal justice-involved (CJ-I) persons. Although these surveys provide a national-level perspective, they do not provide a true public health surveillance approach to determining the prevalence and types of behavioral health issues that burden the populations who pass through the criminal justice process. The fact that there are no "reportable" behavioral health conditions is cited as a factor in the lack of agreement on what constitutes the case definition of behavioral health disorders. This article takes an organizational systems perspective to provide a "flow" analysis of CJ-I individuals and the organizational entities involved at each step of the criminal justice system decision-making process. Issues associated with questions of "screening," "assessment," and "diagnosis" and how such information is potentially stored and reported to a centralized surveillance agency are explored. Informatics and standardization and the role of accrediting bodies in the development of behavioral health surveillance data are canvassed. A series of "first steps" in the development of a state- and national-level behavioral health surveillance system for CJ-I populations is provided.

Re-examining the dual harm profile: an assessment using US prison population-level data

ABSTRACT Dual harm behaviour has recently gained scholarly attention. Dual harm centres on a subset of people who display violent and self-harming behaviour. This study re-examines the differential profile characteristics identified in Europe for those who dual harm, using international data featuring a population study of a state prison system in the south-eastern United States. Three years of data produced 43,489 institutional events, from a custodial population of 22,918. Logistic regression analysis indicates that those who dual harm in custody had an overall rate of infraction 40–70% higher than those who engage solely in violence or self-harm, and five times higher than those without physical harm infractions. Dual harm was associated with higher rates of non-harm incidents (e.g. property damage and disorder), younger age, lower educational achievements on admission and less educational development during imprisonment, greater self-reported mental health need although not substance abuse, and fewer intimate relationships. Dual harm was related to more lethal acts of self-harm such as ligature or ingestion. This is the first study that applies the dual harm profile to prison data within the US. This study supports dual harm as a highly relevant construct within international custodial settings and offers policy implications for this population.

Witnessing Parental Arrest As a Predictor of Child Internalizing and Externalizing Symptoms During and After Parental Incarceration.

PurposeOne in fourteen children in the United States experiences the incarceration of a parent with whom they have lived. Although prior research has established that witnessing the arrest of a parent is a common occurrence for children of criminal justice-involved parents, child outcomes following such an event are understudied. Little is known about the long-term impacts of witnessing an arrest on children and the extent to which they may vary by child age.MethodsUsing longitudinal data from the Parent Child Study of mothers and fathers incarcerated in state prison, we examine the witnessing of parental arrest as an acute traumatic event and identify the extent to which this type of trauma predicts externalizing and internalizing symptoms for children during their parents’ incarceration and following release.ResultsWitnessing a parent’s arrest predicted greater internalizing behavior concerns while parents were incarcerated, with a greater magnitude of effect for children under eight years of age. Six months post-release of the parent, children younger than age eight who witnessed the arrest showed significantly higher internalizing and externalizing behaviors. No effect was found for children ages eight years or older.ConclusionImplications for future policies to reduce the likelihood of children witnessing parental arrests, as well as the potential benefit of screening for trauma when working with children with incarcerated parents, are discussed.

Race and Men’s Imprisonment in the United States: Religious Conservatism, Political Conservatism and Racial Threat

AbstractBlack men are overrepresented in United States prisons and the number of Black men incarcerated increased dramatically during America’s “prison boom.” Yet, existing research on male imprisonment rates in the United States has focused on explaining overall rates and has not statistically modeled rates disaggregated by race over time. This study uses seemingly unrelated regression techniques to analyze annual rates of Black and non-Black men incarcerated in state prisons during the period of greatest increase in United States imprisonment rates. The findings show that increasing evangelical religious conservativism is associated with higher Black imprisonment rates and, importantly, this effect is “amplified” when state legislatures are more politically conservative. We also find that as Black populations increase, the punitive effect of religious conservatism is moderated or attenuated, and this holds for the incarceration of Black as well as non-Black men. In addition, consistent with a racial threat perspective, growth in Black populations in states is linked with increases in Black as well as non-Black male imprisonment rates. Together these effects emphasize the importance of examining imprisonment rates disaggregated by race and highlight the joint and conditional effects of religious conservatism, political conservatism, and racial threat for understanding imprisonment in the United States.

Reentry and recidivism: comparison of veterans and nonveterans in a 3-year state prison release cohort

In the United States, 95% of people incarcerated in prisons will eventually return to the community; however, almost half will be rearrested at least once in the first year after release. To better understand risk, need, and responsivity in order to develop reentry policy and programming, this brief report examines whether and how veterans and nonveterans leaving state prison differ on demographics, behavioral health needs, criminal history, and recidivism. Veterans compared to nonveterans leaving incarceration were older, more likely to be White, and more educated and needed more mental health treatment. Veterans had fewer drug offenses, but more sex offenses. Risk to recidivate was lower in veterans compared to nonveterans, yet there was no difference in measured 1-year recidivism. The Department of Veterans Affairs and community service providers may need to tailor programs to meet the differing needs of veterans versus nonveterans, while accounting for race.

The Cost of Recidivism: A Dynamic Systems Model to Evaluate the Benefits of a Restorative Reentry Program

Hawai‘i Friends of Restorative Justice has developed and implemented a reentry planning process to support incarcerated individuals as they prepare to reenter society. With 16 years of successful practice, research has shown that the program has many benefits, including reducing recidivism by 26 percent among recipients. In this paper, we use systems analysis to explore the long-term effects of a reduction in recidivism on the prison population and evaluate the economic and social benefits of such a program. The paper describes a simulation modeling method that quantifies the predicted effect of recidivism on the prison population, shows the net benefit of the reentry program, and demonstrates the usefulness of modern simulation tools in policy analysis of the criminal justice system. We calibrate the model with data on Hawai‘i state prisons. The model indicates that a 26 percent reduction in recidivism leads to a 17 percent reduction in the prison population over 15 years by reducing the number of recidivists in prison by 40 percent. Considering the marginal and average cost of imprisonment, the estimated benefits substantially outweigh the cost of the program with even the most conservative accounting of marginal costs.

Strategies for Addressing Vaccine Hesitancy Within California State Prisons in 2021 and Beyond.

Although widespread vaccination in correctional facilities is crucial for preventing COVID-19 morbidity and mortality in these institutions and their surrounding communities, there are little data on how to effectively perform vaccine outreach to people experiencing incarceration who remain unvaccinated. In this article, we describe lessons learned from a successful vaccine education initiative in California state prisons and describe opportunities for application to other correctional settings. (Am J Public Health. 2022;112(11):1543-1545. https://doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.2022.307042).

Policy and public communication methods among U.S. state prisons during the first year of the COVID-19 pandemic

BackgroundThroughout the first year of the COVID-19 pandemic, our research team monitored and documented policy changes in United States (U.S.) prison systems. Data sources included prison websites and official prison social media accounts. Over 2500 data sources relevant to the COVID-19 pandemic in U.S. prisons were located and summarized in to five different categories: 1) prevention, 2) case identification and intervention, 3) movement, 4) social communication and connection, and 5) programming, recreation, and privileges.ResultsAll state prison systems reportedly enacted multiple policies intended to limit the spread of COVID-19 during the pandemic. Document analysis revealed that the most commonly released policies were restrictions on social contacts and privileges, basic preventive measures (e.g., distribution of masks), and basic case identification measures (e.g., verbal screening and temperature checks). Utilization of social media for policy communication varied significantly across states, though relevant data was more often released on Facebook than Twitter.ConclusionsTogether, our work provides foundational knowledge on the wide breadth of policies that were reportedly enacted in the first year of the pandemic that may be used as a base for quantitative work on policy effectiveness and examinations of implementation.

The Conservative Heartland: A Political History of the Postwar American Midwest ed. by Jon K. Lauck and Catherine McNicol Stock

Reviewed by: The Conservative Heartland: A Political History of the Postwar American Midwest ed. by Jon K. Lauck and Catherine McNicol Stock Linda Van Ingen Jon K. Lauck and Catherine McNicol Stock, eds., The Conservative Heartland: A Political History of the Postwar American Midwest. Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 2020. 390 pp. $29.95 (paper). The Conservative Heartland is an ambitious effort to elevate the political significance of midwestern conservatism and revive the historiography of the region with its complicated political landscape. Seventeen essays range from studies of the anti-statist conservatism that emerged following World War II to the impact of religion on politics, the political fallout of economic and demographic dislocations, and the tumultuous politics of race and gender. The need to define both "Midwest" and "conservatism" complicates this effort, and the editors accordingly allow for a broad definition of each. "Conservatism" is a response to New Deal liberalism, and the Midwest is a region of twelve contiguous states (Ohio, Michigan, Indiana, Illinois, Wisconsin, Minnesota, Iowa, Missouri, Kansas, Nebraska, South Dakota, and North Dakota) from which scholars can further define the parameters of their respective studies. In a comprehensive introduction, Jon Lauck and Catherine McNicol Stock summarize each essay while also offering an overview of midwestern conservatism that challenges the conventional assumption of a so–called liberal "blue wall" that was supposed to hold for Democrats in 2016. Political strategists, blindsided by Donald Trump's wins in Michigan and Wisconsin, failed to recognize the political volatility of the region. This [End Page 101] book addresses that problem, underscoring the Midwest's competitiveness. Although expanding the scholarship on the breadth and depth of the region's conservatism through their individual essays, the featured authors collectively agree that the Midwest is a political battleground that should not be assumed. The first three articles take different approaches to explore the region's competitiveness. Michael Barone's historical analysis identifies three "heritage factors" (the Northwest Ordinance of 1787, the Kansas-Nebraska Act and founding of the Republican Party in 1854, and labor strikes in the late 1930s) that shape political alignments and cultural attitudes of midwestern voters. Kyle Kondik applies a statistical analysis of presidential deviation in voting from 1976 to 2016 to reveal a political volatility in the region. Daniel Birdsong and Christopher Devine argue that although the Midwest lost much of what made it historically significant in presidential politics (including the size of its electorate, being home to presidential candidates, and hosting national party conventions) it is still a political battleground when measured in terms of media attention, campaign activity, and a "battleground score" calculated to measure electoral competitiveness. All three articles support the book's overall thesis that the Midwest is politically competitive because of significant variations over time and place. Authors of the remaining essays generally agree that midwestern conservatism grew with deep social and fiscal shifts that help explain Trump's appeal in 2016. For example, A. James Fuller explores how Indiana's Mitch Daniels, governor from 2005 to 2013, pursued a fiscally conservative pragmatism emulated by subsequent governors including future vice president Mike Pence. Daniels privatized many government services including toll roads and state prisons. Demands for more prisons were central to Ian Toller-Clark's racial analysis of Wisconsin's working class following decades of liberal criminal justice reform, a development he calls "carceral populism" with wide appeal to conservative voters. Most striking is Catherine McNicol Stock's analysis of how private investment in North Dakota's public sphere influenced public policy. She details the history of how a wealthy benefactor built an ice hockey arena at the University of North Dakota in the 1990s and subsequently wielded control over many university decisions. Stock connects this example to the state's largely unregulated fracking industry and the power of corporate investment over public policy, including environmental concerns and Indigenous rights. Although Stock does not overtly make the claim, it is not hard to connect her work on the "new" [End Page 102] North Dakota with its pro-business agenda to the state's support of Trump in 2016. Several essays address the impact of feminist and gender issues on midwestern conservatism. Ann Marie Wambeke explores...

Biochemical aspect of crime: a case study of testosterone levels among rapists in Enugu State

Testosterone concentration is a contributing factor to rape tendency. Our research aimed to determine the plasma testosterone concentrations in male rapists. Subjects (100) recruited from Enugu state prison grouped viz: Violent-rapist (VR), nonviolent-rapist (NVR), violent child-molester (VCM), nonviolent child-molester (NCM), and none rapist (NR). The blood sample was collected in the morning (8-9) for four months by veno-puncture and used in the determination. The testosterone levels determination was by the enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay method. The results indicated the mean age of 33 (VR), 34 (NVR), 46 (VCM), 47 (NCM), and 32 (NR). The age at first intercourse was highest in NCM (18) and lowest in VR (13). Heterosexuals were highest in VR (14) and lowest in NCM (6). Homosexuals were highest in NCM (4) and non in VM, NVR, and NR (0). In bisexuals, NVR and NCM were the highest (4), the NR (1) was the lowest. The concentrations of testosterone (in ng/100ml) were 8.65 (VR), 9.23 (NVR), 9.63 (VCM), 7.73 (NCM) and 7.95 (NR). The testosterone concentration of the VR, NVR, and VCM is higher than NR. The NCM was lower than the NR. This result suggests that VR, NVR, and VCM are associated with higher testosterone concentrations in males. The modest associations indicate that there might be other influencing factors. The relationship between testosterone levels in rapists and child molestation is, at best, tentative. In some people, hormonal factors might influence the likelihood of rape and child molestation.

More similar than different? Examining prison infractions and recidivism among female and male white-collar offenders

PurposeFemales and males travel different (i.e., gendered) paths into the criminal justice system and prison that are reflective of differences in socioeconomic status and degree of economic marginalization. Heretofore, assessments of the prison experience between the sexes have failed to account for differences in offense type (e.g., white-collar vs. non-white-collar) prior to incarceration—the effects of which could theoretically increase or decrease the likelihood of institutional maladjustment and reoffending. MethodsWe examine this possibility with a series of logistic regression models using a large sample of male and female offenders incarcerated for various white-collar and non-white-collar offenses in the Ohio state prison system. ResultsWith few exceptions, we observed more similarities than differences between female and male white-collar inmates across outcomes of interest (e.g., misconduct and recidivism), especially when compared to females and males incarcerated for other (i.e., non-white-collar) offenses. ConclusionsTheoretical and practical implications are discussed and directions for future research are given, particularly as they relate to the gendered pathways and white-collar crime literature as well as offender classification.

Appreciation is the Secret of Authentic Living: My Story of Appreciative Rehabilitation

In 1994 the author sat in a cell in Mule Creek State Prison, California, wondering if it was possible to change inmates’ resentment- and grievance-filled conversations to positive ones. His discovery of Appreciative Inquiry led to two ongoing programs: Bridging the Gap and, during the Covid pandemic, the Offender Narrative project. By the time he left the prison system, his programs had the support of the administration, staff, inmates – and thousands of participants. He plans to continue as a volunteer staff member.