State Correctional Facilities Research Articles

An Analysis of Statutes Criminalizing Correctional Officer Sexual Misconduct With Inmates

The 2003 Prison Rape Elimination Act (PREA) mandates that U.S. state correctional systems regulate and reduce staff-on-inmate sexual misconduct in state correctional facilities. As data on correctional officer sexual misconduct are limited and its legal definition varies across states, this study utilized statutory analysis to document how staff sexual misconduct is defined and how it is punished across state correctional systems. The most notable finding is that although all 50 states have statutes designed to protect incarcerated persons from being sexually victimized by correctional staff, they are far from uniform.

Thirty years later: Locating and interviewing participants of the Chicago Longitudinal Study

Retaining study participants over time is essential for longitudinal studies to prevent selection bias and to achieve their long-term goals. The present paper examines the extent to which participants can be retained in a 30-year longitudinal study when a multi-pronged approach is employed. The paper specifically describes the approach that was used to locate and interview participants of the Chicago Longitudinal Study (CLS), three decades after the study began. The CLS is a prospective cohort investigation that examines the effects of the Child–Parent Center (CPC) program, a school-based intervention for low-income children from preschool through 3rd grade. The original CLS sample included a complete cohort of 1539 children who were born in low-income areas in 1979–1980 and attended kindergarten in 1985–1986 at Chicago Public Schools. The CLS conducted a follow-up survey when participants were approximately age 35. After relatively slow initial progress, CLS researchers developed a comprehensive strategy to locate and interview participants, including: (a) adoption of detailed, manualized tracking protocol, (b) utilization of multiple search platforms, ranging from public search engines to social media, (c) assistance from state correctional facilities, and (d) neighborhood canvassing and in-person interviews. This tracking and interview process facilitated 735 completed interviews within 27 months, compared to 370 completed interviews in the 32 months prior to the launch of the comprehensive tracking protocol. Altogether, 1105 interviews were conducted, representing an effective completion rate of 76.5%. Recommendations for strengthening response rates in other longitudinal studies are discussed.

Identifying Poly-Victimization Among Prisoners: An Application of Latent Class Analysis.

Research suggests that people in prison may be especially vulnerable to victimization and may be more likely to report exposure to multiple types, known as poly-victimization. However, the literature surrounding patterns of victimization among prisoners is limited. Before we can fully understand the variation in victimization experiences among prisoners, a necessary first step is to identify victim profiles within prisons. The current study utilizes data from the 2004 Survey of Inmates in State and Federal Correctional Facilities and employs latent class analysis to identify unique victim profiles among prisoners to understand the variation in victimization experiences, with a focus on identifying those exposed to poly-victimization. The findings of this study indicate (a) that there are four distinct victim profiles-poly-victimization (2%), physical victimization in adulthood (31%), physical victimization in childhood (17%), and low/no victimization (49%); (b) that some prisoners experience poly-victimization, although this consists of a small proportion of prisoners; and (c) that there are clear demographic differences between the latent classes, with some of the largest differences among those in the poly-victimization profile. The findings of the current study are important because they add more depth to the knowledge regarding poly-victimization among prisoners, a topic that has received little attention from researchers. The current study suggests that correctional policy may need to be tailored in a way that recognizes the different needs of prisoners who have been exposed to different forms of victimization.

Emotional demands and alcohol use in corrections: A moderated mediation model.

This study examined predictors of alcohol use (i.e., drinking quantity and frequency) in a sample of correctional officers (COs). More specifically, based on the idea of drinking to cope, we predicted an indirect effect of emotional demands at work on COs' drinking through employee burnout (i.e., exhaustion and disengagement). We further proposed that this indirect effect would be moderated by recovery experiences outside of work (i.e., psychological detachment and mastery). Participants were 1,039 COs from 14 state correctional facilities. Results indicate that emotional demands were positively associated with burnout, burnout was positively associated with COs' drinking, and emotional demands had a significant indirect effect on COs' drinking through burnout. In addition, detachment moderated the indirect effect of emotional demands on drinking quantity through exhaustion (but not disengagement), whereas mastery moderated the indirect effect of emotional demands on drinking frequency through disengagement (but not exhaustion). Specifically, the strength of the indirect effects were strongest at the lowest levels of recovery experiences, suggesting that low levels of recovery from work may represent a significant risk factor for drinking to cope in COs. Therefore, COs should be encouraged to participate in activities outside of work that facilitate recovery from work demands. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2019 APA, all rights reserved).

Individual Factors Associated with Women’s Use of Mental Health Services during Incarceration: Targeting Programmatic Resources

ABSTRACT This study analyzed data from the Bureau of Justice Statistics Survey of Inmates in State Correctional Facilities to identify factors associated with the use of mental health services among incarcerated women (N = 2571). One quarter of the sample (25.3%) reported accessing mental health counseling during their incarceration, while 30.8% reported using psychotropic medications. Survivors of childhood sexual victimization were more likely to use psychotropic medication (OR = 1.45, p = .016) compared to women who had not experienced this form of violence. Women convicted of violent offenses were more likely to use both psychotropic medication (OR = 2.13, p < .001) and counseling services (OR = 1.57, p = .002). Correctional practitioners should considertargeting resources to address women’s experiences as both victims and perpetrators of violence.

Examining the longitudinal effects of paternal incarceration and coparenting relationships on sons' educational outcomes: A mediation analysis

Over 50% of the 1.5 million people in federal and state correctional facilities have children under age 18. Many of these incarcerated parents are fathers of color. Infrequent physical contact and engagement of fathers triggered by incarceration may present a great degree of disadvantage among their children. Therefore this study examined the literacy trajectory of African American boys whose fathers experience incarceration and to what extent does co-parenting between fathers and mothers intervene or moderate the effects of incarceration. The study analyzed five waves of the Fragile Families study, which provided measures of paternal incarceration and vocabulary of focal children in the study. The findings provided that paternal incarceration consistently had a negative effect on focal sons' educational outcomes across four waves of data. There was general agreement across fathers' and mothers' reports assessing the co-parenting relationship, in which fathers tended to assess the co-parenting relationships slightly stronger than did mothers. The study findings suggest that mothers and fathers co-parenting relationship did not have a sizable or significant direct influence on sons' educational outcomes across waves. However, the co-parenting construct did decrease the effect of incarceration on sons' outcomes. The study informs intervention policy and practice, which should promote enhanced co-parenting strategies that will minimize parental conflict and build parenting consensus and agreement during early and primary education engagement.

Abstract P134: Greater Burden of Cardiovascular Disease Among Incarcerated Women of Color Compared to Whites

Background: Although non-institutionalized black American and Latino adults exhibit a disproportionate burden of cardiovascular disease (CVD) compared to US whites, racial/ethnic disparities are not consistently observed among those incarcerated. Importantly, it is uncertain whether the burden of multiple cardiovascular conditions varies by race/ethnicity among incarcerated individuals. Hypothesis: We assessed the hypothesis that the burden of multiple CVD conditions would be higher among incarcerated non-Hispanic blacks (black) and Latinos compared to non-Hispanic whites (white). Methods: Data from a sample of 14,499 men and women (weighted N=689,161) from the 2004 Survey of Inmates in State Correctional Facilities, a nationally representative sample of adults incarcerated in state facilities, were analyzed. Computer-assisted personal interviews were utilized to collect information on medical history, demographic and socioeconomic factors, prison activities and various offense related factors. Race/ethnicity was defined as self-reported white, black, Spanish/Latino/Hispanic (Latino), or Other. Prior or current CVD conditions (hypertension, diabetes, BMI≥30 kg/m 2 , heart problems, or stroke) were obtained by self-report. Body mass index (BMI, kg/m 2 ) was based on self-reported height and weight. Three separate outcomes were defined based on the cumulative number of CVD conditions (≥1, ≥2 or ≥3 CVD conditions). Age-adjusted survey weighted multivariable logistic regression was used to estimate racial/ethnic disparities in the burden of CVD conditions separately by sex. Results: The median age was 34 years (IQR: 26-42) among men and 35 years (IQR: 27-41) among women. A history of ≥1 CVD condition was reported by 41% of men and 51% of women, while 26% of men and 37% of women reported ≥2 CVD conditions and 10% and 15% of men and women, respectively, reported ≥3. In age adjusted models, among women, significant racial/ethnic disparities were observed among both black and Latina women across all three definitions of CVD burden. The greatest disparities were observed among black women with ≥2 CVD conditions (OR=1.94, 95% CI: 1.62-2.33) followed by Latinas (OR=1.67, 95% CI: 1.32-2.13) compared to whites. Among men in age-adjusted analyses, black men exhibited a similarly greater odds of ≥2 or ≥3 CVD conditions (OR=1.31, 95% CI: 1.18-1.45 and OR=1.36, 95% CI: 1.17-1.57, respectively) compared to white men. Among Latino men compared to whites, modest disparities were only observed for ≥2 CVD conditions (OR=1.17, 95%CI: 1.03-1.33). Conclusions: Black and Latina women and black men exhibited a significantly greater burden of CVD conditions compared to white women and men, respectively. These data highlight the prominent racial/ethnic disparities among incarcerated populations of color and the need for tailored interventions to reduce cardiovascular risk in these populations.

Mental and physical health in prison: how co-occurring conditions influence inmate misconduct

BackgroundResearch has shown that inmate misconduct is related to a range of demographic factors and experiences with the criminal justice system. Poor mental and physical health has also been associated with inmate misconduct, although no research has examined the relationship between co-occurring conditions and misconduct in prison populations.MethodsWe rely on data from the 2004 Survey of Inmates in State Correctional Facilities (N = 14,499) and use negative binomial regression models to examine the relationship between types of co-occurring mental and physical conditions and misconduct.ResultsThe results demonstrate that people in prison dealing with concurrent mental and physical health problems are significantly more likely to engage in prison misconduct than healthy incarcerated individuals. After accounting for physical and co-occurring health conditions, mental conditions are not associated with serious misconduct.ConclusionsEnhancements in prison healthcare may not only improve the general health of those in prison, but also contribute to a decrease in misconduct. Research that examines the relationship between mental health and deviant behavior in and out of prison should consider the multifaceted elements of a person’s health, including acute and chronic physical ailments.

The Offender Job Search Self-Efficacy Scale: Development and initial validation.

The purpose of this study was to develop the Offender Job Search Self-Efficacy Scale (OFJSSE) for the specific job search needs of the criminal justice population. Participants were 249 male inmates within 2 years of release from a state correctional facility in the southern region of the United States who identified mostly as Caucasian (56.2%), single (62.2%), working-class (45.4%) men with a mean age of 36.27 years (SD = 10.38). Initial validation data are described, including results of an exploratory factor analysis. Results indicated that the OFJSSE presents excellent reliability (α = .95) as well as good convergent and discriminant validity by having a strong, positive correlation, r = .73, p < .01, with another job search scale and having a negative correlation, r = -.19, p = .01, with a scale measuring a different construct (i.e., criminal thinking). Implications of the findings as well as limitations and future directions are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2018 APA, all rights reserved).

Education and Health Conditions among the Currently Incarcerated and the Non-Incarcerated Populations.

Previous research has found a strong link between educational attainment and health, where the highly educated live longer and healthier lives than those with lower levels of education. Because such research has relied on samples of the non-institutionalized population, previous research has not explored the association between education and specific chronic and infectious health conditions among the currently incarcerated. Analyzing the relationship between education and health conditions among the incarcerated, whom tend to be less healthy and for whom many of the intermediate mechanisms between education and health are held relatively constant in prison, may yield new insights. Using the 2002-2004 National Health Interview Study (N=74,881), the 2004 Survey of Inmates in State and Federal Correctional Facilities (N=17,553), and interaction terms from logistic regression models, I compared the strength of the association between educational attainment and the presence of chronic and infectious health conditions among the incarcerated and non-incarcerated populations. These models indicated generally stronger negative associations between educational attainment and chronic conditions among the non-incarcerated, while the negative relationship between education and hepatitis was stronger for the incarcerated. These results suggest that while education may play a lesser role for chronic conditions for the incarcerated, it can still important for avoiding risky health behaviors.

Conditions of Confinement in American Prisons and Jails

Research on the consequences of incarceration for inmates and ex-inmates, their families, and their communities has proliferated in just the last 20 years. Yet little of this research has documented variation across facilities in conditions of confinement or how these variations in conditions of confinement shape the consequences of incarceration for inmates and ex-inmates, their families, and their communities. Also, the conditions of confinement that have to this point been considered represent a very incomplete portrait of the range of conditions of confinement inmates could face. In this review, we fill this gap in four ways. First, we provide a partial overview of possible variations in conditions of confinement. Second, we use data from multiple years of the Survey of Inmates in Local Jails and the Survey of Inmates in State and Federal Correctional Facilities to provide an assessment of how much conditions of confinement vary across American jails, state prisons, and federal prisons, with an emphasis on variation within as well as between facility types. Third, we briefly review research on conditions of confinement in the United States and, as appropriate, other developed democracies. Finally, we conclude by providing a road map for future research to further enliven this research area.

Assessing the Relationship Between Physical Health and Inmate Misconduct

Research reveals inmate misconduct results from various factors including age, gang membership, program participation, and mental illness. However, no research has examined the influence of physical illness on misconduct. Per general strain theory, we argue that poor physical health is a significant strain that may negatively affect behavior. Using data from the Bureau of Justice Statistics’ 2004 Survey of Inmates in State Correctional Facilities (SISCF), we investigate how acute illnesses, chronic conditions, and physical disabilities influence misconduct. Results suggest acute conditions increase the likelihood of general, serious, and nonserious misconduct in prison. Conversely, chronic ailments decrease the likelihood of all types of misconduct. We find moderate effects for physical disability. Experiencing acute health conditions while incarcerated significantly increases the likelihood of misconduct, suggesting that by appropriately addressing inmates’ acute ailments, it may be possible to concurrently improve inmate health and decrease misconduct to enhance the lives of those in prison.

Arrested Development: Pursuing a Higher Education in Carceral Contexts

Engaging in pro-social activities such as postsecondary education during incarceration can help to transform offenders and move them in noncriminal directions. This article explores the process of beginning carceral higher education, drawing from interviews with 34 formerly incarcerated individuals who completed postsecondary classes at various state correctional facilities. It also discusses the participants’ readiness for change and changing perspectives experienced during incarceration. The study documents the value of carceral developments in shaping alternative pathways to crime and the role of contextual factors related to institutional confinement, higher education, and antithetical subcultural norms.

Mental Health and the Role of Religious Context among Inmates in State and Federal Prisons: Results from a Multilevel Analysis

Inmates confined to correctional institutions are exposed to stressors that induce psychological distress. One factor that may be important for inmate mental health is religion. Accordingly, scholars have examined the role of participation in religious activities on inmate mental health. Yet, the role of the religious concentration of prisons on inmate mental health remains unexamined, in spite of research showing that religious contexts impact adjustment to prison. Using data from the 2004 Survey of Inmates in State and Federal Correctional Facilities, this paper presents a multilevel analysis of mental health and religion. The results indicated a mostly positive yet slightly inconsistent relationship between individual religious practice and mental distress. Findings regarding the religious context of prisons indicated a curvilinear relationship whereby inmates in highly religious and highly nonreligious prisons were less likely to report mental distress, while inmates in facilities more evenly mixed between religious and irreligious inmates were most likely to report distress. These findings yield insight into the operation of religion within total institutions.

On Guard: The Costs of Work-Related Hypervigilance in the Correctional Setting

Employees in security-related occupations are expected to be alert and on guard at work in order to stay safe and complete their work tasks (e.g., police, military, corrections). This study introduces the concept of work-related hypervigilance (WHV) as an experience at work that sustains cognitive and physiological activation among employees and is associated with strain outcomes and lower well-being. It was hypothesized that WHV would be associated with greater strain outcomes (i.e., exhaustion and p hysical health symptoms), work-to-family conflict, and impaired sleep. Data were collected from 1317 security staff working in 14 state correctional facilities in the Northwestern United States. Results indicated that WHV was positively related to exhaustion, physical health symptoms, and work-to-family conflict. Further, WHV was negatively related to sleep quantity and quality. Overall, the results support the proposition that WHV is an important employee experience that warrants further examination. Practical and theoretical implications and future research directions are discussed.

Use of viral load surveillance data to assess linkage to care for persons with HIV released from corrections.

Incarcerated people remain a priority group in efforts to control and reverse the HIV epidemic. Following release, social instability and reengagement in key transmission risk behaviors increase the risk of secondary transmission of HIV. Targeted programs have been developed to facilitate reengagement in care on reentry. Evaluation of the impact of these initiatives requires a systematic, confidential, framework for assessment of linkage to care for persons released from corrections. By linking HIV viral load surveillance data to corrections release data, the time to the first laboratory monitoring service in the community as well as the virologic status can be assessed. Using this method, we linked release data for sentenced individuals released from Massachusetts state correctional facilities in 2012 to HIV surveillance data from the Massachusetts HIV/AIDS Surveillance Program (MHASP) for the years 2012–2013. We identified 41 individuals with HIV released in 2012. Ninety-one percent had identified virologic assessments post release, 41% within 30 days. Thirty-three percent did not have a viral load assessed for more than 90 days and 31% had detectable virus at the time of their initial assessment. Persons with longer incarcerations (> 180 days) were more likely to have suppressed viral load at the time of follow-up (p = 0.05). This work demonstrates the important value of HIV laboratory surveillance data and correctional release data as a tool to assess linkage to care following release from corrections. We encourage jurisdictions to explore utilizing similar methodology to evaluate the effectiveness of the linkage to HIV care after release from incarceration.

Principled Machine Learning Using the Super Learner: An Application to Predicting Prison Violence

A rapidly growing number of algorithms are available to researchers who apply statistical or machine learning methods to answer social science research questions. The unique advantages and limitations of each algorithm are relatively well known, but it is not possible to know in advance which algorithm is best suited for the particular research question and the data set at hand. Typically, researchers end up choosing, in a largely arbitrary fashion, one or a handful of algorithms. In this article, we present the Super Learner—a powerful new approach to statistical learning that leverages a variety of data-adaptive methods, such as random forests and spline regression, and systematically chooses the one, or a weighted combination of many, that produces the best forecasts. We illustrate the use of the Super Learner by predicting violence among inmates from the 2005 Census of State and Federal Adult Correctional Facilities. Over the past 40 years, mass incarceration has drastically weakened prisons’ capacities to ensure inmate safety, yet we know little about the characteristics of prisons related to inmate victimization. We discuss the value of the Super Learner in social science research and the implications of our findings for understanding prison violence.

Depression among Women Released from Prison or Jail in the United States.

Risk factors for depression among 179 women recently released from prison or jail in a state correctional facility in the northeastern United States were examined in this study. The Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale (CESD-10) was used to measure longitudinal, self-reported depression data. In addition, potential risk factors for depression among women recently released from prison and jail were analyzed. Findings of this study indicated that approximately 83% of the women suffered depression throughout baseline and/or at least one follow up period after release. Significant risk factors for depression among these women included drug use, alcohol use, physical partner abuse, number of living children, and emotional abuse during childhood. Women who used drugs other than marijuana were eight times as likely to suffer from depression compared with women who had never used such drugs.

The Victim–Offender Overlap Behind Bars: Linking Prison Misconduct and Victimization

Despite a growing body of research on the victim–offender overlap, limited scholarship has examined this phenomenon in the context of the prison. This paper advances theory and scholarship on the victim–offender overlap and prison social order by examining linkages between prison misconduct and victimization. Examination of the overlap in the prison context extends the generality of the model and provides greater insight into the implications of the prison experience on behavior. This paper uses nationally representative data from the Survey of Inmates in State and Federal Correctional Facilities and bi-probit analyses to estimate whether the overlap exists within the prison setting and whether victimization and misconduct can be explained using the same theoretical framework. Findings suggest that common and unique risk factors exist for victimization and misconduct. Results have implications for theory, research, and policy related to understanding the relationship between victims and offenders and deviance in the prison setting.

Boston Offender Needs Delivery Project.

To bridge a gap in access to community services for releasing state inmates, the Boston Offender Needs Delivery (BOND) project was developed as a longitudinal study (2014-2016) of adult inmates with a history of substance use and co-occurring mental health disorders returning to the community following detention in one of Massachusetts' State correctional facilities. Pre-release inmates who were wrapping up their sentence (i.e., no community supervision) and presented with mental illness and/or substance use disorder were recruited. Participants were provided substance abuse treatment immediately post-release, as well as a variety of recovery supports for a follow-up period of 6 months. This first manuscript is intended to describe the rationale behind the BOND project, as well as the methods and procedure used to collect the data.