STARE Datasets Research Articles

TCDDU-Net: combining transformer and convolutional dual-path decoding U-Net for retinal vessel segmentation

Accurate segmentation of retinal blood vessels is crucial for enhancing diagnostic efficiency and preventing disease progression. However, the small size and complex structure of retinal blood vessels, coupled with low contrast in corresponding fundus images, pose significant challenges for this task. We propose a novel approach for retinal vessel segmentation, which combines the transformer and convolutional dual-path decoding U-Net (TCDDU-Net). We propose the selective dense connection swin transformer block, which converts the input feature map into patches, introduces MLPs to generate probabilities, and performs selective fusion at different stages. This structure forms a dense connection framework, enabling the capture of long-distance dependencies and effective fusion of features across different stages. The subsequent stage involves the design of the background decoder, which utilizes deformable convolution to learn the background information of retinal vessels by treating them as segmentation objects. This is then combined with the foreground decoder to form a dual-path decoding U-Net. Finally, the foreground segmentation results and the processed background segmentation results are fused to obtain the final retinal vessel segmentation map. To evaluate the effectiveness of our method, we performed experiments on the DRIVE, STARE, and CHASE datasets for retinal vessel segmentation. Experimental results show that the segmentation accuracies of our algorithms are 96.98, 97.40, and 97.23, and the AUC metrics are 98.68, 98.56, and 98.50, respectively.In addition, we evaluated our methods using F1 score, specificity, and sensitivity metrics. Through a comparative analysis, we found that our proposed TCDDU-Net method effectively improves retinal vessel segmentation performance and achieves impressive results on multiple datasets compared to existing methods.

Detection of optic disc in human retinal images utilizing the Bitterling Fish Optimization (BFO) algorithm

Early detection and correct identification of the optic disc (OD) on scanned retinal images are significant for diagnosing and treating several ophthalmic conditions, including glaucoma and diabetic retinopathy. Conventional methods for detecting the OD often struggle with processing retinal images due to noise, changes in illumination, and complex overlapping images. This study presents the development of effective and accurate fixation of the optic disc using the Bitterling Fish Optimization (BFO) algorithm, which enhances the processes of OD imaging in speed and precision. The proposed method begins with image enhancement and noise suppression for preprocessing, followed by applying the BFO algorithm to locate and delineate the OD region. The performance evaluation of the algorithm was conducted within several public domain retinal images, including DRIVE, STARE, ORIGA, DRISHTI-GS, DiaRetDB0, and DiaRetDB1 datasets about some internal metrics: sensitivity (SE), specificity (SP), accuracy (ACC), DICE overlap coefficient, overlap and time of processing respectively. The technique based on BFO provided better results, with 99.33%, 99.94%, and 98.22% accuracy achieved for OD in DRIVE, DRISHTI-GS, and DiaRetDB 1, respectively. The approach also demonstrated high overlaps and good DICE results, with a DICE coefficient of 0.9501 for the DRISHTI-GS database. On average, the processing time per image was less than 2.5 s, proving the approach’s efficiency in computations. The BFO approach has demonstrated its effectiveness and scalability in detecting optic discs in retinal images in an automated manner. It showed impressive performance levels in terms of computation time and accuracy and was variation resistant irrespective of the quality of the image and the pathology present on it. This method holds significant potential for clinical use, providing a meaningful way of diagnosing and managing ocular disease at an early stage.

Blood Vessel Segmentation and Classification of Diabetic Retinopathy with Machine Learning-Based Ensemble Model

The incidence of diabetes has increased in recent times due to factors such as obesity and genetic predisposition. Diabetes wears out the eye vessels over time. Diabetic retinopathy (DR) is a serious disease that leads to vision problems. DR can be diagnosed by specialists who examine the fundus images of the eye at regular intervals. With 537 million diabetics in 2021, this method can be time-consuming, costly and inadequate. Artificial intelligence algorithms can provide fast and cost-effective solutions for DR diagnosis. In this study, the noise of blood vessels in fundus images was eliminated using the LinkNet-RCB7 model, and diabetic retinopathy was categorized into five classes using a machine learning-based ensemble model. Artificial intelligence-based classification training using images as input takes a long time and requires high resource requirements such as Random Access Memory (RAM) and Graphics Processing Unit (GPU). By using Gray Level Cooccurrence Matrix (GLCM) attributes in the classification phase, a lower resource requirement was aimed for. A Dice coefficient of 85.95% was achieved for the segmentation of blood vessels in the Stare dataset, in addition to 97.46% accuracy for binary classification and 96.10% accuracy for classifying DR into five classes in the dataset APTOS 2019.

Thin vessel segmentation in fundus images using attention UNet and modified Frangi filtering

Thin vessel segmentation is an active research problem, with an emphasis on finding a universal approach for different types of fundus datasets. Enhancement of the thin vessels is the first and foremost task for proper segmentation, which is proposed to be done with the total variation (TV) decomposition method with layer-selective enhancement and illumination correction. The vessel segmentation task is carried out on two fronts. For thin vessels, we propose the attention UNet backbone, and for thick vessels, the modified Frangi method is used. The method is trained and tested on HRF, CHASE_DB1, and DRIVE datasets with accuracy of 96.73%, 96.38%, and 94.97%, and sensitivity of 92.66%, 81.05%, and 87.56%, respectively. The method was cross-validated on the STARE dataset with an accuracy of 96.30% and a sensitivity of 93.69%. The sensitivity performance surpasses the state of the art.

GKE-TUNet: Geometry-Knowledge Embedded TransUNet Model for Retinal Vessel Segmentation Considering Anatomical Topology.

Automated retinal vessel segmentation is crucial for computer-aided clinical diagnosis and retinopathy screening. However, deep learning faces challenges in extracting complex intertwined structures and subtle small vessels from densely vascularized regions. To address these issues, we propose a novel segmentation model, called Geometry-Knowledge Embedded TransUNet (GKE-TUNet), which incorporates explicit embedding of topological features of retinal vessel anatomy. In the proposed GKE-TUNet model, a skeleton extraction network is pre-trained to extract the anatomical topology of retinal vessels from refined segmentation labels. During vessel segmentation, the dense skeleton graph is sampled as a graph of key-points and connections and is incorporated into the skip connection layer of TransUNet. The graph vertices are used as node features and correspond to positions in the low-level feature maps. The graph attention network (GAT) is used as the graph convolution backbone network to capture the shape semantics of vessels and the interaction of key locations along the topological direction. Finally, the node features obtained by graph convolution are read out as a sparse feature map based on their corresponding spatial coordinates. To address the problem of sparse feature maps, we employ convolution operators to fuse sparse feature maps with low-level dense feature maps. This fusion is weighted and connected to deep feature maps. Experimental results on the DRIVE, CHASE-DB1, and STARE datasets demonstrate the competitiveness of our proposed method compared to existing ones.

Retina Blood Vessels Segmentation and Classification with the Multi-featured Approach.

Segmenting retinal blood vessels poses a significant challenge due to the irregularities inherent in small vessels. The complexity arises from the intricate task of effectively merging features at multiple levels, coupled with potential spatial information loss during successive down-sampling steps. This particularly affects the identification of small and faintly contrasting vessels. To address these challenges, we present a model tailored for automated arterial and venous (A/V) classification, complementing blood vessel segmentation. This paper presents an advanced methodology for segmenting and classifying retinal vessels using a series of sophisticated pre-processing and feature extraction techniques. The ensemble filter approach, incorporating Bilateral and Laplacian edge detectors, enhances image contrast and preserves edges. The proposed algorithm further refines the image by generating an orientation map. During the vessel extraction step, a complete convolution network processes the input image to create a detailed vessel map, enhanced by attention operations that improve modeling perception and resilience. The encoder extracts semantic features, while the Attention Module refines blood vessel depiction, resulting in highly accurate segmentation outcomes. The model was verified using the STARE dataset, which includes 400 images; the DRIVE dataset with 40 images; the HRF dataset with 45 images; and the INSPIRE-AVR dataset containing 40 images. The proposed model demonstrated superior performance across all datasets, achieving an accuracy of 97.5% on the DRIVE dataset, 99.25% on the STARE dataset, 98.33% on the INSPIREAVR dataset, and 98.67% on the HRF dataset. These results highlight the method's effectiveness in accurately segmenting and classifying retinal vessels.

A Novel Single-Sample Retinal Vessel Segmentation Method Based on Grey Relational Analysis.

Accurate segmentation of retinal vessels is of great significance for computer-aided diagnosis and treatment of many diseases. Due to the limited number of retinal vessel samples and the scarcity of labeled samples, and since grey theory excels in handling problems of "few data, poor information", this paper proposes a novel grey relational-based method for retinal vessel segmentation. Firstly, a noise-adaptive discrimination filtering algorithm based on grey relational analysis (NADF-GRA) is designed to enhance the image. Secondly, a threshold segmentation model based on grey relational analysis (TS-GRA) is designed to segment the enhanced vessel image. Finally, a post-processing stage involving hole filling and removal of isolated pixels is applied to obtain the final segmentation output. The performance of the proposed method is evaluated using multiple different measurement metrics on publicly available digital retinal DRIVE, STARE and HRF datasets. Experimental analysis showed that the average accuracy and specificity on the DRIVE dataset were 96.03% and 98.51%. The mean accuracy and specificity on the STARE dataset were 95.46% and 97.85%. Precision, F1-score, and Jaccard index on the HRF dataset all demonstrated high-performance levels. The method proposed in this paper is superior to the current mainstream methods.

Retinal Blood Vessels Segmentation With Improved SE‐UNet Model

ABSTRACTAccurate segmentation of retinal vessels is crucial for the early diagnosis and treatment of eye diseases, for example, diabetic retinopathy, glaucoma, and macular degeneration. Due to the intricate structure of retinal vessels, it is essential to extract their features with precision for the semantic segmentation of medical images. In this study, an improved deep learning neural network was developed with a focus on feature extraction based on the U‐Net structure. The enhanced U‐Net combines the architecture of convolutional neural networks (CNNs) with SE blocks (squeeze‐and‐excitation blocks) to adaptively extract image features after each U‐Net encoder's convolution. This approach aids in suppressing nonvascular regions and highlighting features for specific segmentation tasks. The proposed method was trained and tested on the DRIVECHASE_DB1 and STARE datasets. As a result, the proposed model had an algorithmic accuracy, sensitivity, specificity, Dice coefficient (Dc), and Matthews correlation coefficient (MCC) of 95.62/0.9853/0.9652, 0.7751/0.7976/0.7773, 0.9832/0.8567/0.9865, 82.53/87.23/83.42, and 0.7823/0.7987/0.8345, respectively, outperforming previous methods, including UNet++, attention U‐Net, and ResUNet. The experimental results demonstrated that the proposed method improved the retinal vessel segmentation performance.

TLTNet: A novel transscale cascade layered transformer network for enhanced retinal blood vessel segmentation

Extracting global and local feature information is still challenging due to the problems of retinal blood vessel medical images like fuzzy edge features, noise, difficulty in distinguishing between lesion regions and background information, and loss of low-level feature information, which leads to insufficient extraction of feature information. To better solve these problems and fully extract the global and local feature information of the image, we propose a novel transscale cascade layered transformer network for enhanced retinal blood vessel segmentation, which consists of an encoder and a decoder and is connected between the encoder and decoder by a transscale transformer cascade module. Among them, the encoder consists of a local–global transscale transformer module, a multi-head layered transscale adaptive embedding module, and a local context(LCNet) module. The transscale transformer cascade module learns local and global feature information from the first three layers of the encoder, and multi-scale dependent features, fuses the hierarchical feature information from the skip connection block and the channel-token interaction fusion block, respectively, and inputs it to the decoder. The decoder includes a decoding module for the local context network and a transscale position transformer module to input the local and global feature information extracted from the encoder with retained key position information into the decoding module and the position embedding transformer module for recovery and output of the prediction results that are consistent with the input feature information. In addition, we propose an improved cross-entropy loss function based on the difference between the deterministic observation samples and the prediction results with the deviation distance, which is validated on the DRIVE and STARE datasets combined with the proposed network model based on the dual transformer structure in this paper, and the segmentation accuracies are 97.26% and 97.87%, respectively. Compared with other state-of-the-art networks, the results show that the proposed network model has a significant competitive advantage in improving the segmentation performance of retinal blood vessel images.

Unsupervised domain adaptation multi-level adversarial learning-based crossing-domain retinal vessel segmentation

BackgroundThe retinal vasculature, a crucial component of the human body, mirrors various illnesses such as cardiovascular disease, glaucoma, and retinopathy. Accurate segmentation of retinal vessels in funduscopic images is essential for diagnosing and understanding these conditions. However, existing segmentation models often struggle with images from different sources, making accurate segmentation in crossing-source fundus images challenging. MethodsTo address the crossing-source segmentation issues, this paper proposes a novel Multi-level Adversarial Learning and Pseudo-label Denoising-based Self-training Framework (MLAL&PDSF). Expanding on our previously proposed Multiscale Context Gating with Breakpoint and Spatial Dual Attention Network (MCG&BSA-Net), MLAL&PDSF introduces a multi-level adversarial network that operates at both the feature and image layers to align distributions between the target and source domains. Additionally, it employs a distance comparison technique to refine pseudo-labels generated during the self-training process. By comparing the distance between the pseudo-labels and the network predictions, the framework identifies and corrects inaccuracies, thus enhancing the accuracy of the fine vessel segmentation. ResultsWe have conducted extensive validation and comparative experiments on the CHASEDB1, STARE, and HRF datasets to evaluate the efficacy of the MLAL&PDSF. The evaluation metrics included the area under the operating characteristic curve (AUC), sensitivity (SE), specificity (SP), accuracy (ACC), and balanced F-score (F1). The performance results from unsupervised domain adaptive segmentation are remarkable: for DRIVE to CHASEDB1, results are AUC: 0.9806, SE: 0.7400, SP: 0.9737, ACC: 0.9874, and F1: 0.8851; for DRIVE to STARE, results are AUC: 0.9827, SE: 0.7944, SP: 0.9651, ACC: 0.9826, and F1: 0.8326. ConclusionThese results demonstrate the effectiveness and robustness of MLAL&PDSF in achieving accurate segmentation results from crossing-domain retinal vessel datasets. The framework lays a solid foundation for further advancements in cross-domain segmentation and enhances the diagnosis and understanding of related diseases.

PSO-HRVSO: Segmentation of Retinal Vessels Through Homomorphic Filtering Enhanced by PSO Optimization

The structure of retinal blood vessels is crucial for the early detection of diabetic retinopathy, a leading cause of blindness worldwide. Yet, accurately segmenting retinal vessels poses significant challenges due to the low contrast and noise present in capillaries.The automated segmentation of retinal blood vessels significantly enhances Computer-Aided Diagnosis for diverse ophthalmic and cardiovascular conditions. It is imperative to develop a method capable of segmenting both thin and thick retinal vessels to facilitate medical analysis and disease diagnosis effectively. This article introduces a novel methodology for robust vessel segmentation, addressing prevalent challenges identified in existing literature. The methodology PSO-HRVSO comprises three key stages: pre-processing, main processing, and postprocessing. In the initial stage, filters are employed for image smoothing and enhancement, leveraging PSO optimization. The main processing phase is bifurcated into two configurations. Initially, thick vessels are segmented utilizing an optimized top-hat approach, homo-morphic filtering, and median filter. Subsequently, the second configuration targets thin vessel segmentation, employing the optimized top-hat method, homomorphic filtering, and matched filter. Lastly, morphological image operations are conducted during the post-processing stage. The PSO-HRVSO method underwent evaluation using two publicly accessible databases (DRIVE and STARE), measuring performance across three key metrics: specificity, sensitivity, and accuracy. Analysis of the outcomes revealed averages of 0.9891, 0.8577, and 0.0.9852 for the DRIVE dataset, and 0.9868, 0.8576, and 0.9831 for the STARE dataset, respectively. The PSO-HRVSO technique yields numerical results that demonstrate competitive average values when compared to current methods. Moreover, it sur-passes all leading unsupervised methods in terms of specificity and accuracy. Additionally, it outperforms the majority of state-of-the-art supervised methods without incurring the computational costs associated with such algorithms. Detailed visual analysis reveals that the PSO-HRVSO approach enables a more precise segmentation of thin vessels compared to alternative procedures.

Diabetic Retinopathy Stage Detection Using CNN and Inception V3

The project explores the deployment of Convolutional Neural Networks (CNN) and the Inception V3 model for the automated detection and classification of diabetic retinopathy stages using fundus images. Recognizing diabetic retinopathy as a leading cause of blindness among the working-age population globally, this research aims to streamline the diagnostic process, traditionally reliant on the manual examination by ophthalmologists. Through the utilization of the DRIVE and STARE datasets, the project benchmarks the performance of CNN and Inception V3 models in accurately categorizing the severity of diabetic retinopathy into five distinct stages. The comparison between these models is grounded on parameters such as accuracy, loss, and predicted value, with findings indicating Inception V3's superiority in both performance metrics and diagnostic precision. This advancement could significantly contribute to early and more accessible detection of diabetic retinopathy, thereby mitigating progression towards blindness. Furthermore, the project underscores the potential of deep learning algorithms in enhancing diagnostic methodologies for retinal diseases, paving the way for future explorations in the field of medical imaging and artificial intelligence.

Robust deep learning for eye fundus images: Bridging real and synthetic data for enhancing generalization

Deep learning applications for assessing medical images are limited because the datasets are often small and imbalanced. The use of synthetic data has been proposed in the literature, but neither a robust comparison of the different methods nor generalizability has been reported. Our approach integrates a retinal image quality assessment model and StyleGAN2 architecture to enhance Age-related Macular Degeneration (AMD) detection capabilities and improve generalizability. This work compares ten different Generative Adversarial Network (GAN) architectures to generate synthetic eye-fundus images with and without AMD. We combined subsets of three public databases (iChallenge-AMD, ODIR-2019, and RIADD) to form a single training and test set. We employed the STARE dataset for external validation, ensuring a comprehensive assessment of the proposed approach. The results show that StyleGAN2 reached the lowest Fréchet Inception Distance (166.17), and clinicians could not accurately differentiate between real and synthetic images. ResNet-18 architecture obtained the best performance with 85% accuracy and outperformed the two human experts (80% and 75%) in detecting AMD fundus images. The accuracy rates were 82.8% for the test set and 81.3% for the STARE dataset, demonstrating the model’s generalizability. The proposed methodology for synthetic medical image generation has been validated for robustness and accuracy, with free access to its code for further research and development in this field.

A Multi-Scale Attention Fusion Network for Retinal Vessel Segmentation

The structure and function of retinal vessels play a crucial role in diagnosing and treating various ocular and systemic diseases. Therefore, the accurate segmentation of retinal vessels is of paramount importance to assist a clinical diagnosis. U-Net has been highly praised for its outstanding performance in the field of medical image segmentation. However, with the increase in network depth, multiple pooling operations may lead to the problem of crucial information loss. Additionally, handling the insufficient processing of local context features caused by skip connections can affect the accurate segmentation of retinal vessels. To address these problems, we proposed a novel model for retinal vessel segmentation. The proposed model is implemented based on the U-Net architecture, with the addition of two blocks, namely, an MsFE block and MsAF block, between the encoder and decoder at each layer of the U-Net backbone. The MsFE block extracts low-level features from different scales, while the MsAF block performs feature fusion across various scales. Finally, the output of the MsAF block replaces the skip connection in the U-Net backbone. Experimental evaluations on the DRIVE dataset, CHASE_DB1 dataset, and STARE dataset demonstrated that MsAF-UNet exhibited excellent segmentation performance compared with the state-of-the-art methods.

A retinal vessel segmentation network with multiple-dimension attention and adaptive feature fusion

The incidence of blinding eye diseases is highly correlated with changes in retinal morphology, and is clinically detected by segmenting retinal structures in fundus images. However, some existing methods have limitations in accurately segmenting thin vessels. In recent years, deep learning has made a splash in the medical image segmentation, but the lack of edge information representation due to repetitive convolution and pooling, limits the final segmentation accuracy. To this end, this paper proposes a pixel-level retinal vessel segmentation network with multiple-dimension attention and adaptive feature fusion. Here, a multiple dimension attention enhancement (MDAE) block is proposed to acquire more local edge information. Meanwhile, a deep guidance fusion (DGF) block and a cross-pooling semantic enhancement (CPSE) block are proposed simultaneously to acquire more global contexts. Further, the predictions of different decoding stages are learned and aggregated by an adaptive weight learner (AWL) unit to obtain the best weights for effective feature fusion. The experimental results on three public fundus image datasets show that proposed network could effectively enhance the segmentation performance on retinal blood vessels. In particular, the proposed method achieves AUC of 98.30%, 98.75%, and 98.71% on the DRIVE, CHASE_DB1, and STARE datasets, respectively, while the F1 score on all three datasets exceeded 83%. The source code of the proposed model is available at https://github.com/gegao310/VesselSeg-Pytorch-master.

Diverter transformer-based multi-encoder-multi-decoder network model for medical retinal blood vessel image segmentation

The retinal blood vessel is an essential part of the fundus structure. It is important to accurately analyze the structure and distribution of retinal vessels, which can help make accurate medical diagnoses. However, it is still challenging to extract detailed information due to the problems of fuzzy edges, low resolution, and lots of noise in retinal blood vessel medical images. To extract the image detail information effectively, we propose a new diverter transformer-based multi-encoder-multi-decoder network model in this paper. The network model consists of a feature encoder module and a feature decoder module. Among them, the feature encoding module consists of a diverter transformer with a diverter adaptive mechanism, three encoder units with a convolution layer and max-pooling layer, and the two decoder units in the feature decoding module consist of an inverse convolution layer and an up-sampling layer, respectively. The Local Context Module (LCNet Module) in the feature encoding module learns richer local context feature information layer by layer through changing the width of the network while downsampling; the Global Encoder Module1 (G-Encoder Module1) and the Global Encoder Module2 (G-Encoder Module2) extract the global feature representation of retinal blood vessel images by performing a max-pooling operation to transform the input data into a vector of fixed dimensions, thus helping the network model to better understand and extract the global feature representation of retinal blood vessel images. The two decoder units in the feature decoding module receive local and global feature information from three encoder units, LCNet Module, G-Encoder Module1 and G-Encoder Module2, respectively. Decoder Module1 generates segmentation prediction by layer-by-layer up-sampling operation, and Decoder Module2 recovers the feature information by downsampling and decoding operations and fuses the recovered feature information to output, obtaining the final segmentation of the retinal blood vessels. The proposed diverter transformer-based multi-encoder-multi-decoder network model is validated on the DRIVE and STARE datasets with other classical and state-of-the-art network models, and its segmentation accuracy is 97.25% and 97.93%, respectively. Compared with the classical U-Net model, the improvement is 2.24% and 1.42%, respectively. Compared with the state-of-the-art SPNet model, the accuracy is increased by 0.61% on DRIVE and 1.01% on STARE. It indicates that the network model proposed in this paper has a significant competitive advantage in improving the segmentation performance of retinal blood vessel images.

MAFE-Net: retinal vessel segmentation based on a multiple attention-guided fusion mechanism and ensemble learning network.

The precise and automatic recognition of retinal vessels is of utmost importance in the prevention, diagnosis and assessment of certain eye diseases, yet it brings a nontrivial uncertainty for this challenging detection mission due to the presence of intricate factors, such as uneven and indistinct curvilinear shapes, unpredictable pathological deformations, and non-uniform contrast. Therefore, we propose a unique and practical approach based on a multiple attention-guided fusion mechanism and ensemble learning network (MAFE-Net) for retinal vessel segmentation. In conventional UNet-based models, long-distance dependencies are explicitly modeled, which may cause partial scene information loss. To compensate for the deficiency, various blood vessel features can be extracted from retinal images by using an attention-guided fusion module. In the skip connection part, a unique spatial attention module is applied to remove redundant and irrelevant information; this structure helps to better integrate low-level and high-level features. The final step involves a DropOut layer that removes some neurons randomly to prevent overfitting and improve generalization. Moreover, an ensemble learning framework is designed to detect retinal vessels by combining different deep learning models. To demonstrate the effectiveness of the proposed model, experimental results were verified in public datasets STARE, DRIVE, and CHASEDB1, which achieved F1 scores of 0.842, 0.825, and 0.814, and Accuracy values of 0.975, 0.969, and 0.975, respectively. Compared with eight state-of-the-art models, the designed model produces satisfactory results both visually and quantitatively.

Denoised Non-Local Means with BDDU-Net Architecture for Robust Retinal Blood Vessel Segmentation

Retinal blood vessels can be obtained by image segmentation. This study proposes combining image enhancement and segmentation to obtain retinal blood vessels. The image enhancement stages use CLAHE and Denoised Non-Local Means to increase contrast and reduce noise on the original image, and Bottom-Hat (BTH) filtering is used to lighten dark features in the image so the features become lighter and darken the bright features in the image. Bottom Hat is applied to make the features of the blood vessels in the retinal image more visible. The segmentation architecture proposes BDDU-Net architecture which combines U-Net in the encoder part, DenseNet in the bridge part, and Bi-ConvLSTM in the decoder part. Image enhancement performance results are PSNR and SSIM. The PSNR is more than 40 dB on both the DRIVE and STARE datasets. The SSIM results are close to 1 on the DRIVE and STARE datasets. These results show that the image enhancement stages in the proposed method can enhance the quality of the original image. The segmentation performance results of BDDU-Net architecture are measured based on accuracy, sensitivity, specificity, IoU, and F1-Score. The DRIVE dataset obtained 95.578% for accuracy, 85.75% for sensitivity, 96.75% for specificity, 67.407% for IoU, and 80.53% for F1-Score. The STARE dataset obtained 97.63% for accuracy, 84.33% for sensitivity, 98.66% for specificity, 75.67% for IoU, and 86.15% for F1-Score. Based on the image enhancement and image segmentation results, these results show that the proposed method is great for enhancing image quality and excellent for blood vessel segmentation in retinal images, although IoU results on the DRIVE dataset need to be improved.

Mobile Implementation of Retinal Image Analysis for Efficient Vessel, Optic Disc, and Lesion Detection

Smartphone-based mobile fundus photography is gaining popularity due to the rise of handheld fundus lenses, allowing a portable solution for a mobile-based computer-assisted diagnostic system (CADS). With such a system, professionals can monitor and diagnose numerous retinal diseases, including diabetic retinopathy (DR), glaucoma, age-related macular degeneration, etc. on their smartphone devices. In this study, we proposed a unified CADS tool for smartphone devices that can detect and identify six crucial retinal features utilizing both a filtering approach and a deep learning (DL) approach. These features are retinal blood vessels (RBV), optic discs (OD), hemorrhages (HM), microaneurysm (MA), hard exudates (HE), and soft exudates (SE). Traditional filtering is applied for RBV segmentation using B-COSFIRE and Frangi filter, whereas vessel inpainting and automatic canny edge-based Hough transform are used to localize OD center and radius. The DR lesions (HM, MA, HE, OD segmentation, and SE) are detected using a transfer learning-based Resnet50 backbone and multiclass DL U-net architecture. RBV segmentation achieved 94.94% and 94.44% accuracy in the DRIVE and STARE datasets. OD localization achieved an accuracy of 99.60% in the MESSIDOR dataset. Lastly, the IDRiD dataset is used to train and validate the DR lesions with an overall accuracy of 99.7%, F1-score of 77.4, and mean IoU of 59.2. The smartphone application can perform all the segmentation tasks at once in an average of 30 seconds. Given the availability, it is possible to improve the accuracy of the DL method further by training with more mobile fundus datasets.

MFA-UNet: a vessel segmentation method based on multi-scale feature fusion and attention module

IntroductionThe accurate segmentation of retinal vessels is of utmost importance in the diagnosis of retinal diseases. However, the complex vessel structure often leads to poor segmentation performance, particularly in the case of microvessels.MethodsTo address this issue, we propose a vessel segmentation method composed of preprocessing and a multi-scale feature attention network (MFA-UNet). The preprocessing stage involves the application of gamma correction and contrast-limited adaptive histogram equalization to enhance image intensity and vessel contrast. The MFA-UNet incorporates the Multi-scale Fusion Self-Attention Module(MSAM) that adjusts multi-scale features and establishes global dependencies, enabling the network to better preserve microvascular structures. Furthermore, the multi-branch decoding module based on deep supervision (MBDM) replaces the original output layer to achieve targeted segmentation of macrovessels and microvessels. Additionally, a parallel attention mechanism is embedded into the decoder to better exploit multi-scale features in skip paths.ResultsThe proposed MFA-UNet yields competitive performance, with dice scores of 82.79/83.51/84.17/78.60/81.75/84.04 and accuracies of 95.71/96.4/96.71/96.81/96.32/97.10 on the DRIVE, STARE, CHASEDB1, HRF, IOSTAR and FIVES datasets, respectively.DiscussionIt is expected to provide reliable segmentation results in clinical diagnosis.