Starch Crystals Research Articles

Influence of chitosan-coating on the stability and digestion of emulsions stabilized by waxy maize starch crystals

We produced emulsions by using waxy maize starch nanocrystals (SNCs) (0.075 wt%) and tricaprylin (2.5 wt%) (particle size (D3,2) of the emulsion: 0.5 μm; ζ-potential (ZP): –18 mV at pH 4) and then covered the droplets with chitosan to enhance the emulsion stability under acidic conditions. In the chitosan concentration ranging from 0.1 to 0.4% w/v, the D3,2 of the emulsion increased from 585 to 638 nm and the ZP of the emulsion increased from 40.6 to 47.5 mV, because of thickening of the chitosan-coating layer at the interface. Changes in this thickness affected lipolysis of the emulsions in the in vitro small intestinal environment. The amount of free fatty acids released was 75.0, 64.9, and 56.7% for 0, 0.1, and 0.4% w/v chitosan-coated emulsions, respectively. Additionally, only the emulsions covered with chitosan (0.1–0.4% w/v) were stable for 60 days of storage at pH 4 and 25 °C. The additional chitosan-coating on the emulsions stabilized with the SNCs can serve as a strategy for food hydrocolloids, to enhance colloidal stability under acidic conditions and control digestion in the gastrointestinal tract.

Effects of Controlled Relative Humidity Storage on Moisture Sorption and Amylopectin Retrogradation in Gelatinized Starch Lyophiles.

Water plays a significant role in the gelatinization and retrogradation (crystallization) of starch. Amylopectin crystalline regions can adopt several hydrated polymorphic forms; however, reports differ on the migration of water during retrogradation. The objectives of this study were to determine the moisture sorption patterns of gelatinized starch lyophiles during retrogradation in controlled relative humidity (RH) environments and document the amylopectin polymorph(s) formed. Starches from different botanical sources containing A-type and B-type amylopectin polymorphs were studied. Suspensions of starch were heated and then frozen and freeze-dried to make primarily amorphous matrices. Moisture sorption profiles of the dried samples were collected from 5% RH to 95% RH at 25 °C. To capture the retrogradation event, sample masses were also monitored at constant RHs over time (95%, 92.5%, and 90% RH). Powder X-ray diffraction was used to document the physical state of the samples, including the amylopectin polymorph formed upon retrogradation, and differential scanning calorimetry was used to determine glass transition temperatures (Tg s). In all lyophiles, water was first absorbed (mass gain), and if a critical water content was reached (at ≥92.5%RH), sample Tg s dropped below room temperature and concurrent retrogradation and water expulsion (mass loss) occurred, regardless of starch botanical source and whether A- or B-type polymorphs were formed. Overall, retrogradation and water expulsion increased as storage RH increased. These results offer further knowledge into the role of water in amylopectin retrogradation and the relationship among starch type, environmental RH, moisture sorption prior to retrogradation, and water redistribution during retrogradation. PRACTICAL APPLICATION: Starch gelatinization and retrogradation require molecular mobility, which is facilitated by water. Limited retrogradation occurred in lyophiles in the glassy state (90% RH, 25 °C), but increasing the storage RH (to ≥92.5% RH) resulted in increasing amylopectin retrogradation (note: many baked products have water activities in this range). Regardless of starch type (botanical source and amylose content), when the storage RH was high enough, the starch lyophiles first absorbed water, which depressed the Tg below the storage temperature, and then exhibited concomitant retrogradation and water expulsion. The water expelled during amylopectin retrogradation was not (fully) retained in the amorphous starch fraction, which is why samples lost weight. Water leaving the starch matrix during retrogradation could pose challenges for quality, texture, and shelf-life of starch-based products.

Effect of calcium chloride on the uniformity of colouring in sushi red ginger slices by modulating the properties of starch.

The colour of sushi red ginger slices without blanching is not uniform, which seriously affects their sensory quality. The effect of calcium chloride (CaCl2) pretreatment on the uniformity of colouring and the properties of ginger starch have been studied. The crystalline region of the starch in blanched ginger slices was broken, which might be beneficial for uniform colouring. The effect of CaCl2 pretreatment on starch properties depended on the concentration. The influence of CaCl2 at a concentration higher than 3.5 mol L−1 was more pronounced than that at a lower concentration. The uniformity of colouring was close to the effect of blanching treatment. Furthermore, the starch crystallization was destroyed, the granules were broken, and the polarized cross disappeared, which was consistent with that observed for the starch in blanched ginger slices. Therefore, it is possible to achieve a uniform colour in red ginger slices at room temperature through CaCl2 pretreatment.

Rice starch for brewing sake: Characterization by synchrotron X-ray scattering

The crystalline structure of the starch of six cultivars of rice for sake brewing were studied by small-/wide-angle X-ray scattering and X-ray diffraction by synchrotron radiation. The starch structures all provide a lamella structure of a crystal phase and an amorphous phase. The crystal phases of the starches show A-type starch and some B-type starch. The B-type starch content varied slightly between the different rice cultivars, with Yamadanishiki-type containing the most. The change in starch structure upon the early stage of sake brewing was also investigated. The crystal structure and lamella structure were maintained after soaking in water. However, the structure of starch changed to an amorphous phase upon steaming and gelatinization. While the steamed rice was cooled at 15 °C, the starch crystal structure, but not lamella structure, was recovered. Furthermore, the dependence of B-type starch content on the cultivars was also recovered. This result indicated that the crystals of starch destroyed imperfectly, but also crystalline nuclei remained after steaming.

Structural and physicochemical characteristics of lycoris starch treated with different physical methods

The effects of microwave treatment (MT), heat-moisture treatment (HMT) and autoclaving treatment (GT) on the structural and physicochemical characteristics of lycoris starch (LS) were investigated. The HMT-LS and GT-LS particles were larger and rougher with block-like characteristics compared to the LS particles. The XRD results revealed that HMT and GT converted native starch (A-type) into B-type starch. The density of the starch crystallization zone after HMT and GT was higher than that of LS, while MT had the weakest effect. The solubility and swelling power of MT-LS, HMT-LS and GT-LS were significantly (p < 0.05) lower at 65 and 95 °C, but opposite trends were observed at 55 °C. The RVA viscograms for MT-LS, HMT-LS, and GT-LS showed a lower breakdown and setback value compared to that of LS, reflecting stronger starch aggregations and lower retrogradation tendencies. Additionally, both G′ and G″ of the treated starch were lower, which indicated weaker gel structures.

Effect of Crystal Structure and Hydrogen Bond of Thermoplastic Oxidized Starch on Manufacturing of Starch-Based Biomass Composite

Starch-based biomass composites were prepared with starch and plant fiber. In order to improve the properties of the compos ites, oxidized starches (OS) were prepared using hydroxyl peroxide as oxidizer, then glycerol was added into OS as plasticizer to produce thermoplastic oxidized starches (TPOS). Crystal structure, hydrogen bonds of TPOS were researched to gain comprehensive views on the mechanism of the property differences between the starch-based composites with native starch, OS and TPOS. The changes of crystal structure were analyzed by X-ray diffraction analysis. Starch intermolecular hydroxyl changes were investigated using the method of infrared spectrum analysis. It was found that the new hydrogen bonds were formed between the plasticizer, oxidizer and starch, and the starch intermolecular bonding force was weakened. The structure of starch crystallization was destructed in TPOS. Differential scanning calorimetry showed that cross reaction with oxidization and plasticization changed the crystal structure, glass transition process was not observed in TPOS. The tensile and compressive strengths of composite based on TPOS were improved greatly and mechanical properties were not weakened obviously with water content increased. All the results indicated that TPOS could improve the properties of starch-based composites.

Physicochemical properties and flavor retention ability of alkaline calcium hydroxide-mungbean starch films

The physicochemical properties and the flavor retention ability of the dried mungbean starch film formed in the presence of calcium ions under alkaline pH were analyzed. Treating starch in a NaOH or Ca(OH)2 solution at pH 12 induced the formation B-type starch crystal. However, the starch film made with Ca(OH)2 (Ca-film) was more effective than starch film made with NaOH (Na-film) in entrapping 1,8-cineole, menthone and citonellol. Entrapment efficiency of citonellol in Ca-film which had B-type starch crystal structure was close to that of the V-type starch film formed at neutral pH using distilled water (DW-film). 1,8-cineole, menthone, and citronellol were entrapped in dried Ca-films for 5.07%, 1.52%, and 30.84%, respectively. Physical entrapment of flavor compounds by alkaline-treated starch and high water solubility (24.4–46.7 %) of Ca-films could help designing a novel controlled flavor release systems.

AN APPROACH ON ANATOMICAL STRUCTURE OF CHAETOSTOMA GLAZIOVII COGN – MELASTOMATACEAE – AND ITS SUCCESSFUL ESTABLISHMENT AT HIGH-ALTITUDE FIELDS

Chaetostoma glaziovii Cogn. is an endemic species of the Brazilian flora and grows exclusively in fields at elevations above 2000 meters. It belongs to Melastomataceae family, Microlicieae tribe, which presents little variation on vegetative organs, making it difficult to identify sterile individuals. Anatomical studies, using optical and scanning electron microscopes are carried on comparing the data with the anatomical characteristics of xeromorphic plants, cited in the literature, to check its similarities. This study aims, also, highlight data that may contribute to characterization of the species due to the great similarities among sterile individuals within the tribe. Leaf and stem anatomical data of C. glaziovii are interpreted considering climatic factors, aiming to understand the species’ successful establishment in an environment characterized by intense light exposure, strong winds and extreme temperatures. It is noteworthy the great amount of fibers on the abaxial and marginal regions of leaf blade, forming an armor against environmental aggressions. In addition, this characteristic is valued from the taxonomic perspective because no other species of the tribe exhibits such extensive fiber development. The material was collected in the Itatiaia National Park at an altitude of 2350 meters, latitude S 22° 23' 26'' and longitude W 44o 40' 17''. Histochemical tests were performed on unfixed samples to identify starch grains, lipids, phenolic compounds, glycides and crystals. The anatomical data revealed that some characteristics of C. glaziovii are like those found on xeromorphic plants and are important for its identification beyond to contribute for understanding the intricate plant-environment relationships.

Gastrointestinal digestion and stability of submicron-sized emulsions stabilized using waxy maize starch crystals

We prepared Pickering emulsions using tricaprylin (TC) and waxy maize starch nanocrystals (SNCs). The SNCs were obtained using an acid hydrolysis method and subsequently modified with octenyl succinic anhydride (OSA), to stabilize the water/TC interface. The particle size (PS) of fabricated OSA-SNCs was ∼42 nm, and contact angle of OSA-SNCs at the interface was determined as ∼90° using a gel trapping technique. Only 0.15 wt% OSA-SNCs in the continuous phase of the emulsion effectively saturated the surface of the TC droplets (5 wt%) to achieve a stable Pickering emulsions (PS, ∼0.5 μm). Theoretically, a TC droplet was covered with ∼450 OSA-SNCs at the saturation point. The excess amount (≥0.15 wt%) of OSA-SNCs used to prepare the Pickering emulsions did not affect the digestion of the emulsions during the in vitro study in simulated gastrointestinal fluids and the stability during the 15-days storage at various conditions (pH: 4, 7, and 11; temperature: 4, 25, and 37 °C). Based on the storage results, the Pickering emulsions stabilized with OSA-SNCs were good to be stored in neutral/basic conditions under refrigeration. This study may serve as a basis for further research that aims for development of foods, cosmetics, and drugs to incorporate lipophilic bioactives.

Influence of the composition and high shear stresses on the structure and properties of hybrid materials based on starch and synthetic copolymer

The method of mechanical activation in the rotor-stator device was used to combine the starch hydrogel and the latex of the synthetic copolymer. The compatibility of the components was found to improve consistently by the preliminary mechanoactivation of the starch gel and the joint activation of the mixturs.The joint activation was shown to promote the crystallization of starch and the amorphous phase ordering of the composite.An increase in the starch content and co-activation were found to result in rise in the Young's modulus and tensile strength, but joint activation ensures an increase in the elasticity of the samples.The kinetic parameters of moisture transfer through composite films were estimated. A distinct compensative effect was found, consisted in a significant increase in the sorption coefficient and a decrease in the diffusion coefficient with increasing starch content.

Effect of Starch Nanocrystals on Natural Rubber Latex Vulcanizate Properties

The incorporation of bio-nanofillers such as starch nanocrystals (SNC) in polymer matrices received much attention owing to their biodegradable nature. In this work, starch nanocrystals have been isolated from modified corn starch by acid hydrolysis and their efficacy as a potential bio-filler for natural rubber latex (NR) has been explored. The quality of the SNC suspension was confirmed from dynamic light scattering (DLS) studies and X-ray diffraction (XRD) measurements. For the fabrication of nanocomposites of NR with corn starch crystals, a simple latex stage mixing procedure was employed. The platelet-like morphology of corn starch nanocrystals improved the barrier properties of NR based vulcanizates with the addition of the SNC suspension.

Synergism Effect of Surfactant and Inorganic Salt on the Properties of Starch/Poly(Vinyl Alcohol) Film

The starch/PVA films with the addition of 30 wt.% Ca(NO3)2 and different content of Tween 20 are prepared by solution casting. The effect of Ca(NO3)2 on the crystalline, thermal, and mechanical properties of starch/PVA film is studied by X‐ray diffraction measurement, differential scanning calorimetry and tensile testing, respectively. The effect of Tween 20 on the properties of Ca(NO3)2 doped starch/PVA film is studied. The water sorption properties and the water vapor barrier properties of starch/PVA films are studied. The results shows that Ca(NO3)2 can effectively destroy the crystals of starch and PVA. The Ca(NO3)2 doped starch/PVA film shows a high water sorption rate and low water vapor barrier properties. Tween 20 can increase the water resisting properties and increase the flexibility of Ca(NO3)2 doped starch/PVA film. With the combination of Ca(NO3)2 and Tween 20 the flexible starch/PVA film with a high water resisting ability is obtained.

Changes in physicochemical properties and starch crystallinity of sponge cake containing HPMC and extra virgin coconut oil during room temperature storage

Starch retrogradation is an important factor affecting cake firmness. Effects of hydroxy-propyl-methylcellulose (HPMC) at 0.5% (w/w) or extra virgin coconut oil (EVCO) at 20% (w/w), either alone or together, on physicochemical properties and starch crystallinity of sponge cake during storage was investigated. Addition of EVCO increased specific volume and expansion ratio, while addition of HPMC increased water activity of the freshly baked sponge cake. Changes in firmness, moisture, and spin-lattice relaxation time from nuclear magnetic resonance (T1) of sponge cakes followed a first-order kinetic reaction. Use of HPMC and/or EVCO in sponge cake could retard the firmness rate in the following order: EVCO + HPMC, < EVCO < HPMC < control (no HPMC and EVCO). The Avrami model satisfactorily fitted the retrogradation kinetics data. The growth of remainder crystals was slower in the presence of EVCO + HPMC, while both the nucleation and growth rates of new crystals were slower with 20% EVCO. Practical applications Deterioration of sponge cake during storage is a major problem and can be costly to the bakery industry. HPMC and Extra virgin coconut oil could retard a firmness rate of sponge cake during storage. The kinetic modeling can be applied for tracking quality changes in sponge cake. Lipid decreases starch crystal growth and a nucleation rate in sponge cake. Firmness of sponge cake is directly related to the degree of starch crystallization. This research can be beneficial to the industrial cake production for improvement of product shelf life.

Study on Changes in the Characteristics of Key Carbohydrates in Wheat during the After-ripening Period

Abstract: Three wheat cultivars—Zhengmai 366 (ZM366), Zhoumai 27 (ZM27) and Yangmai 15 (YM15)—were used in the present study. After storage at 25 ℃ for 15, 30, 45, 60, 90, 120 and 150 d, the crude starch, amylose, amylopectin, damaged starch and reducing sugar contents in wheat during the after-ripening period were measured. The results revealed (1) a marginal decrease in the total starch content; (2) no significant change in the amylopectin content; and (3) significant change in the amylose and reducing sugar contents during the after-ripening period in all the three wheat cultivars. Further, the amylose content in the three cultivars exhibited an increasing trend during the initial phase of the after-ripening period. Among the cultivars, ZM366 exhibited the highest increase, which stabilized after 90 d. The reducing sugar content showed a significant decrease during the initial phase of the after-ripening period with ZM366 showing the highest decrease, which attained stability after 90 d. The damaged starch content in all the three wheat cultivars exhibited a decreasing trend with ZM27 showing the highest decrease, which stabilized after 90 d. There were no changes in the forms of starch crystal among the three wheat cultivars after the after-ripening period, with only ZM366 showing a significant increase in starch crystallinity. The reducing sugar content in all the three wheat cultivars exhibited a decreasing trend during the initial phase of the after-ripening period, which attained stability at around day 90. Supported by National Natural Science Foundation (31571873), Henan Province Science and Technology Achievement Conversion Program (Agriculture) Project (142201110030), Henan Province Colleges and Universities Young Backbone Teacher Plan (2016GGJS-070), Key Scientific and Technological Project of Henan Province (172102110008)

Strength retention and moisture resistant properties of citric acid modified thermoplastic starch resins

The strength retention and moisture resistant properties of thermoplastic starch (TPS) resins were significantly enhanced by modifying with proper amounts of citric acid (CA) (i.e. TPS100CAx specimens) or by melt-blending with poly(lactic acid) (PLA) (i.e. (TPS100CA0.1)xPLAy specimens). In contrast to the distinguished retrogradation effect found for all conditioned TPS specimens, one can barely find any recrystallized starch crystals in TPS100CAx and/or (TPS100CA0.1)xPLAy specimens maintained at 20 °C/50% RH for less than 42 days. The tensile/impact strength retention values of properly prepared conditioned TPS100CA0.1 and (TPS100CA0.1)30PLA70 specimens were equivalent to 1.5 MPa/0.28 KJ/m2 and 41.8 MPa/1.63 KJ/m2, respectively, which were more than 4/4 times and 105/23 times higher than those of corresponding TPS specimens maintained at 20 °C/50% RH for 70 days. In comparison with conditioned TPS specimens, significantly less and shorter drawn debris were found on the fracture surfaces of the corresponding conditioned TPS100CA0.1 and (TPS100CA0.1)30PLA70 specimens with the same amounts of conditioned time. As revealed by Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, Solid-state 13C Nuclear Magnetic Resonance analyses, disruption of intra and interhydrogen-bondings within starch molecules did occur after addition of small amounts of CA during the modification processes of TPS100CAx specimens. The relatively unchanged in retrogradation effect, significantly less drawn debris and considerable improvement in moisture resistant and/or strength retention properties of the conditioned TPS100CAx and/or (TPS100CA0.1)xPLAy specimens is most likely due to the efficient hydrogen-bonding CA molecules with the moisture-absorbing hydroxyl (free or hydrogen-bonded) of starch molecules that prohibits moisture absorption during their conditioning processes.

English

Cassia sieberiana DC. (Leguminosae - Caesalpinioideae), commonly known as drumstick and ‘aridantooro’ in Yoruba, is a perennial tree native to Africa. It is used in ethno-medicine to manage arthritis and rheumatism. Pharmacological activities such as myorelaxant, antispasmodic, anti-inflammatory, and antimicrobial have been reported in literature. Pharmacognostic investigation including microscopy, chemomicroscopy, physicochemical analysis and phytochemical investigations including thin layer chromatographic finger printing were conducted on fresh and powdered leaf and root samples of this plant. The macro and microscopic studies revealed the leaves to be simple, petiolated, glabrous and pinnately veinnated. The lower epidermal surface is characterized by abundant anomocytic stomata, polygonal epidermal cells and numerous uniseriate, unicellular trichomes. Quantitative leaf analysis revealed the following: stomatal number (163.8), stomatal index (19.04), palisade ratio (17.01), vein islet number (56.45) and vein termination number (61.45). Chemomicroscopic characters present include lignins, tannins, mucilage, starch, oils and calcium oxalate crystals. The physicochemical parameters evaluated are moisture content of 6.3%, total ash of 4.2%, acid-insoluble ash of 3.4%, sulphated ash of 11.0%, water-soluble ash of 0.8%, alcohol-soluble extractive of 21.3%, and water-soluble extractive of 16.7%. Chromatographic fingerprints of ethanol 70% extracts show major spots at Rf = 0.18 daylight (brown), UV366 (deep brown), spray reagent at 100°C (brown); Rf = 0.57 daylight (brown), UV366 (deep brown), spray reagent at 100°C (brown); Rf = 0.89 daylight (green), UV366 (red), spray reagent at 100°C (brown). The pharmacognostic evaluation of the leaves of C. sieberiana is reported here for the first time. The results of this research provide information which can be included in official monograph of the plant for its proper identification and quality control. Key words: Cassia sieberiana, pharmacognostic studies, physicochemical studies, chemomicroscopy.

Cross-Linked Amylose Bio-Plastic: A Transgenic-Based Compostable Plastic Alternative.

Bio-plastics and bio-materials are composed of natural or biomass derived polymers, offering solutions to solve immediate environmental issues. Polysaccharide-based bio-plastics represent important alternatives to conventional plastic because of their intrinsic biodegradable nature. Amylose-only (AO), an engineered barley starch with 99% amylose, was tested to produce cross-linked all-natural bioplastic using normal barley starch as a control. Glycerol was used as plasticizer and citrate cross-linking was used to improve the mechanical properties of cross-linked AO starch extrudates. Extrusion converted the control starch from A-type to Vh- and B-type crystals, showing a complete melting of the starch crystals in the raw starch granules. The cross-linked AO and control starch specimens displayed an additional wide-angle diffraction reflection. Phospholipids complexed with Vh-type single helices constituted an integrated part of the AO starch specimens. Gas permeability tests of selected starch-based prototypes demonstrated properties comparable to that of commercial Mater-Bi© plastic. The cross-linked AO prototypes had composting characteristics not different from the control, indicating that the modified starch behaves the same as normal starch. The data shows the feasibility of producing all-natural bioplastic using designer starch as raw material.

Preparation and characterization of starch-based composite films reinfoced by polysaccharide-based crystals

Starch based films, reinforced by two types of polysaccharide-based crystals, were prepared and compared. The films were transparent and their surface was smooth in appearance. Addition of crystals increased the Young's modulus and tensile strength of starch-based materials and decreased elongation at break. Scanning electron microscopic observation indicated good compatibility between starch matrix and the reinforcing fillers due to same chemical unit (glucose). Cellulose crystals have higher thermal stability than that of starch crystals; this provides better processibility and superior mechanical properties to starch films filled with cellulose crystals. On the other hand, starch films filled with starch crystals demonstrated higher protection againstUV radiation. Since all the components used in this work belong to food sources, the prepared films are biodegradable, safe for food packaging and can also be used to developed ible films (such as wrappers for candies) and medicinal capsules (both soft and hard capsules).

Physicochemical Properties of A- and B-type Granules of Wheat Starch and Effects on the Quality of Wheat-Based Noodle

Abstract This work fractionated native wheat starches into A- and B-type granules fractions to accurately assess granules physicochemical properties and effects on water distribution, storage modulus (E′) and loss modulus (E″) of two type noodles with A- and B-type granules. Pasting viscosity and starch crystallization of A- and B-type granules were determined by Rapid Visco Analyzer (RVA) and X-ray diffraction (XRD) respectively. The noodles were prepared from wheat flour, which 20 % was replaced with the A or B starch fractions, respectively. The water distribution and dynamic mechanical properties of noodles were characterized through Low-field Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (LF-NMR) and Dynamic Mechanical Analysis (DMA). The results demonstrated that A- and B-type granules almost had a round shape with smooth surface. The crystal models of A- and B-type granules were the same but the relative crystallinity were different. A-type granules contained higher starch content, higher ratio between amylose and amylopectin and less damaged starch than B-type granules. B-type granules easily aggregated into clump in deionized water. A- and B-type granules were different in swelling properties and pasting viscosity under the same conditions. A-type granules possessed lower swelling power and water-binding capacity, higher solubility and pasting viscosity than B-type granules. A-noodles (relative to B-noodles) had higher ratio of immobilized water, E′ and E″.

Antifungal starch-based edible films containing Aloe vera

Aloe vera gel, analysed as to its antifungal properties against six fungi causing plant diseases, was found to be most effective against Fusarium oxysporum. It was included in different ratios in starch based films plastiziced with glycerol to obtain antifungal films. These were characterized as to their physical (barrier and optical) and structural properties. Films containing the highest ratio of Aloe vera solids (1:1, with respect to starch) and different glycerol mass ratios with respect to starch (0.15 and 0.25) were analysed as to the water sorption and water plasticization effects, in order to discover the water sensitivity of the films in different RH ambients. Films with 0.15 g glycerol/g starch were more homogenous, with a lower degree of starch crystallization, reduced water vapour permeability and higher gloss and transparency. These films with the highest Aloe vera ratio were effective at controlling fungal decay and weight loss in cherry tomatoes.