Staple Grain Research Articles

Dietary Supplementation of Foxtail Millet Ameliorates Colitis-Associated Colorectal Cancer in Mice via Activation of Gut Receptors and Suppression of the STAT3 Pathway.

Coarse cereal intake has been reported to be associated with reduced risk of colorectal cancer. However, evidence from intervention studies is absent and the molecular basis of this phenomenon remains largely unexplored. This study sought to investigate the effects of foxtail millet and rice, two common staple grains in Asia, on the progression of colitis-associated colorectal cancer (CAC) and define the mechanism involved. In total, 40 BALB/c mice were randomized into four groups. The Normal and azoxymethane/dextran sodium sulfate (AOM/DSS) groups were supplied with an AIN-93G diet, while the millet- and rice-treated groups were supplied with a modified AIN-93G diet. Compared to the AOM/DSS-induced CAC mice supplemented with rice, an increased survival rate, suppressed tumor burden, and reduced disease activity index were observed in the millet-treated group. The levels of IL-6 and IL-17 were decreased in the millet-treated group compared to both the AOM/DSS and AOM/DSS + rice groups. Millet treatment inhibited the phosphorylation of STAT3 and the related signaling proteins involved in cell proliferation, survival and angiogenesis. These beneficial effects were mediated by the activation of gut receptors AHR and GPCRs via the microbial metabolites (indole derivates and short-chain fatty acids) of foxtail millet. Moreover, millet-treatment increased the abundance of Bifidobacterium and Bacteroidales_S24-7 compared to the rice-treated mice. This study could help researchers to develop better dietary patterns that work against inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) and for CAC patients.

Organoleptic Properties of Ready to Reconstitute Little Millet Smoothie with Fruit Juices

Millets being climate resilient crops with high nutritional value are far better than staple grains like wheat and rice. Being adaptable to wide range of agro ecological conditions, the nutricereals little millet can grow on low fertility dry lands meeting demands of exploding population and providing solution to agrarian and nutritional challenges the world is dealing with. Further, value addition could be a strategic intervention in popularization of underutilized small millets and transform the billions of people from nutrient insufficiency to nutrient adequacy. The present fast-paced era with increased nuclear families and changing eating habits due to rapid urbanisation and globalisation demands for development of ready to consume nutrient dense food. In addition, growing awareness regarding health benefits of millets demands for millet-based designer foods to meet diversified needs of consumers. In view of these aspects, a ready to reconstitute (RTR) little millet smoothie mix was developed and tested for its suitability to blend with fruit juices through sensory profiling. The nourishing little millet and fruit-based smoothies would be a healthy inclusion in one’s daily diet with a great market potential.

Early isotopic evidence for maize as a staple grain in the Americas.

Maize is a cultigen of global economic importance, but when it first became a staple grain in the Americas, was unknown and contested. Here, we report direct isotopic dietary evidence from 52 radiocarbon-dated human skeletons from two remarkably well-preserved rock-shelter contexts in the Maya Mountains of Belize spanning the past 10,000 years. Individuals dating before ~4700 calendar years before present (cal B.P.) show no clear evidence for the consumption of maize. Evidence for substantial maize consumption (~30% of total diet) appears in some individuals between 4700 and 4000 cal B.P. Isotopic evidence after 4000 cal B.P. indicates that maize became a persistently used staple grain comparable in dietary significance to later maize agriculturalists in the region (>70% of total diet). These data provide the earliest definitive evidence for maize as a staple grain in the Americas.

Genome-wide association study leads to novel genetic insights into resistance to Aspergillus flavus in maize kernels

BackgroundFungus infection in staple grains affects the food storage and threatens food security. The Aspergillus flavus is known to infect multiple grains and produce mycotoxin Aflatoxin B1, which is mutagenic, teratogenic and causes immunosuppression in animals. However, the molecular mechanism of maize resistance to A. flavus is largely unknown.ResultsHere we used corn kernels to investigate resistance genes to A. flavus using genome-wide association study (GWAS) of 313 inbred lines. We characterized the resistance levels of kernels after inoculating with A. flavus. The GWAS with 558,529 SNPs identified four associated loci involving 29 candidate genes that were linked to seed development, resistance or infection, and involved in signal pathways, seed development, germination, dormancy, epigenetic modification, and antimicrobial activity. In addition, a few candidate genes were also associated with several G-protein signaling and phytohormones that might involve in synergistic work conferring different resistance during seed development. Expression of 16 genes out of 29 during kernel development was also associated with resistance levels.ConclusionsWe characterized the resistance levels of 313 maize kernels after inoculating with A. flavus, and found four associated loci and 16 candidate maize genes. The expressed 16 genes involved in kernel structure and kernel composition most likely contribute to mature maize kernels’ resistance to A. flavus, and in particular, in the development of pericarp. The linked candidate genes could be experimentally transformed to validate and manipulate fungal resistance. Thus this result adds value to maize kernels in breeding programs.

Commercial agriculture for food security? The case of oil palm development in northern Guatemala

Development practitioners and policymakers often posit that promoting cash crop expansion to generate rural employment has the potential to alleviate poverty and improve food security. Focusing upon the recent expansion of oil palm production in the northern lowlands of Guatemala, we critically evaluate this claim. To do so, we draw upon survey data collected in two neighbouring villages – one where oil palm is the main land use, another where maize and secondary forest are prevalent – to investigate how the expanding cultivation of the cash crop shapes local food access and rural livelihoods. We find that oil palm has improved food access for some households with oil palm employment. However, number of beneficiaries is relatively small and the practice does not lift them from the ranks of the food insecure. For most households in the village where oil palm is prevalent, the ability to access food has decreased, as the expansion of oil palm has displaced staple grain production and eliminated relatively more inclusive forms of agricultural employment. In contrast, households from the village where staple maize production remains predominant are notably more food secure. We conclude that, in the absence of deep changes that address the underlying causes of widespread vulnerability in Guatemala’s northern lowlands, the self-provisioning of maize and other staples will continue to serve as a cornerstone of food security, while the promotion of cash crops like oil palm will exacerbate inequalities in households’ ability to access food.

EVALUATION OF MONO-, DI- AND OLIGO-SACCHARIDES OF STAPLE INDIAN GRAIN FLOURS

In this study, investigation of fourteen most common and traditionally used Indian staple grain flours: wheat, white rice, kutki rice, maize, maida, besan, sattu, little millet, quinoa, soybean, jowar, bajra, sooji and ragi was undertaken for the assessment of mono- (namely glucose, fructose and galactose) and di- (namely sucrose) and oligo-saccharides (namely raffinose, stachyose and verbascose), with a special interest on the indigestible flatulence producing Raffinose Family Oligosaccharides (RFOs). The soluble saccharides were extracted with ethanol and evaluated by calorimetric and high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) methods. The results showed that among the investigated flours, total RFOs content on dry matter (DM) basis ranges from 0.07 (maize) to 12.61 mmol/100 g DM (chickpea). Within RFOs, raffinose was the major sugar (0.1 to 8.04 mmol/100 g DM), followed by stachyose (negligible to 6.3 mmol/100 g DM) and verbascose (negligible to 0.14 mmol/100 g DM), except for soybean wherein the major RFO was stachyose. The observed sucrose content ranges from 0.05 (maize) to 6.32 mmol/100 g DM (quinoa). Within mono-saccharides: glucose content ranges from negligible (chickpea, little millet, quinoa, pearl millet and sooji) to 3.64 mmol/100 g DM (soybean), galactose content ranges from negligible (white rice, maize, sattu, quinoa, white millet, sooji and finger millet) to 1.72 mmol/100 g DM (chickpea) and fructose content ranges from negligible (chickpea, sattu, little millet, quinoa, soybean, sooji and finger millet) to 0.99 mmol/100 g DM (white rice). From the obtained results, the investigated grains can be classified as per the content of water soluble saccharides and accordingly a glycemic index and anti-flatulence chart can be prepared as a ready reference for dietary guidelines.

What Are the Domestic and Regional Impacts From Ethiopia's Policy on the Export Ban of Teff?

In response to global food price volatility and trends towards increased global food demand, Ethiopian policy makers were forced to adopt strategies such as restricting food exports in order to protect domestic food security. However, these policies can have a disproportionate regional impact on domestic markets and can result in lost revenue from exports. For this reason, they have been criticized as inefficient from the perspective of economic development. Here, we examine the sub-national dynamics of a ban on food exports. We do this for the case of Ethiopia’s ban on exports of teff, a staple grain in the country that has increasing global demand. We assess the impact of the ban and of proposed policies to relax the ban, across regions within the country and for various market actors along the teff value chain. Using a partial-equilibrium model developed with a detailed modeling of the agro-economic features of the country, we analyze the direct impacts on export revenue, producers’ profits, transport patterns, and consumption across the disaggregated regions in Ethiopia due to changes to its teff export policy. In particular, we show that the immediate benefit due to significant increase in international revenue due to large teff export would be enjoyed primarily by food distributors and storage operators while the farmers’ profits increase only negligibly. Simulations also indicate that lifting the export ban would be expected to have significant impacts on domestic transportation of teff between regions (for example from Mekelle to Werder), and to reduce consumption of teff significantly in some regions (for example, Semera, Jijiga), an effect due to the lack of competition in the transportation sector. The granularity of the model helps us capture the possibility of such lopsided benefits which were not captured in earlier studies.

Fate and Bioaccessibility of Iodine in Food Prepared from Agronomically Biofortified Wheat and Rice and Impact of Cofertilization with Zinc and Selenium

Enrichment of food crops with iodine is an option to alleviate dietary deficiencies. Therefore, foliar iodine fertilizer was applied on wheat and rice, in the presence and absence of the other micronutrients zinc and selenium. This treatment increased the concentration of iodine, as well as zinc and selenium, in the staple grains. Subsequently, potential iodine losses during preparation of foodstuffs with the enriched grains were studied. Oven-heating did not affect the iodine content in bread. Extraction of bran from flour lowered the iodine in white bread compared to wholegrain bread, but it was still markedly higher compared to the control. During subsequent in vitro gastrointestinal digestion, a higher percentage of iodine was released from foods based on extracted flour (82-92%) compared to wholegrain foods (50-76%). The foliar fertilization of wheat was found to be adequate to alleviate iodine deficiency in a population with a moderate to high intake of bread.

Fruits and Vegetables in International Agricultural Research: A Case of Neglect?

Fruits and vegetables (F+Vs) can play an important role in combatting the problem of the double burden of malnutrition. Agricultural research can help to increase the productivity and the resource-use efficiency of fruit and vegetable production and, thus, reduce prices so that these commodities can become more available to poor households. However, the crops research of the international agricultural research system, including its centerpiece the CGIAR, has so far concentrated mainly on staple grains and starchy food crops, while largely neglecting most F+Vs. None of the current CGIAR centers is specifically dedicated to fruits or vegetables if the convention is followed not to consider cassava, potatoes of all types, and bananas and their relatives as vegetables. The underlying reasons why the CGIAR has not focused on F+Vs are explored in this review. The early emphasis on food staple crops was motivated by the perception that the hunger problems of the era were primarily deficiencies in food energy. The success of the Green Revolution, in which international agricultural research played a key role, stimulated further emphasis on increasing the productivity of staple grains as the major strategy to combat hunger. F+Vs, however, received limited attention. The Asian Vegetable Research and Development Center in Taiwan was created outside the CGIAR system. In the 1990s new centers were added to the CGIAR system, but this opportunity was not used to create a dedicated center for F+Vs. Some informal activities to conduct research on F+Vs also took place in several other CGIAR centers as part of the farming systems research activities, based on the recognition that F+Vs are small but important elements of many farming systems of the developing world. Through an analysis of the reasons why the CGIAR system has tended little to F+Vs, this paper presents an assessment of possible future strategies to better integrate these "neglected" commodities into international agricultural research efforts. The assessment shows that genetic improvement might perhaps best be largely left to the private sector, while international agricultural research could better focus on developing strategies for integrated pest management, biological pest control, and improved water use efficiency, as these are areas where private companies have limited incentives to invest. Moreover, publicly funded research could help to find low-cost solutions for infrastructure-related aspects such as postharvest handling and storage (e.g., cooling and drying), aspects where renewable energy sources have a substantial potential.

Performance of pearl millet [Pennisetumglaucum (L.)R. Br.] varieties intercropped with cowpea varieties as affected by planting dates in Nigerian Sudan savanna

Field experiments were conducted in 2015 and 2016 rainy seasons at the Teaching and Research Farm of the Department of Crop Production, University of Maiduguri, Maiduguri (11047N; 12016E) to study the performance of pearl millet varieties (Pennisetum glaucum) (L.) R. Br.) intercropped with cowpea (Cowpea Vigna unguiculata (L.) Walp) varieties under different planting dates. The treatments consisted of three pearl millet varieties: ZATIP, SOSAT-C-88 and LACRI-9702-IC, two cowpea varieties: Borno Brown and SAMPEA 11 and four planting dates: 0 weeks after planting millet (WAPM), 1 WAPM, 2 WAPM and 3 WAPM. The experimental design was Split-Split plot with the pearl millet varieties allocated to the main plots, cowpea varieties assigned to the sub-plots and planting date assigned to the sub- sub plots in 1:1 alternate row arrangement, and replicated three times. The results showed that in 2015, 2016 and the combined mean, number of tillers/plants, harvest index and grain yield/hectare were significantly greater for SOSAT-C-88 than ZATIP or LACRI-9702-IC. Plant height, panicle were significantly greater for ZATIP, while, yield/hectare were significantly greater for Borno Brown than SAMPEA 11 variety. Delaying planting date by three weeks after planting the millet component decreased grain yield and fodder yield in cowpea. The land equivalent ratio of pearl millet and cowpea variety showed that, higher partial land equivalent ratio were produced by SOSAT-C-88 + Borno Brown. The partial land equivalent ratio of pearl millet variety for straw yield and grain yield advantages were higher for LACRI-9702-IC + cowpea intercrop. From this study, the millet variety SOSAT-C-88 intercropped with cowpea variety Borno Brown is ideal for both staple grain and cash returns from the system in the Sudan Savanna of Nigeria.

Morphological and molecular characterizations of Heterodera oryzae in Korea.

Rice is one of the most important staple grains in Korea and the largest starch source in addition to its usefulness in the production of beverages. Under different areas and environments of production, various pests and diseases including soil-borne plant pathogens such as plant-parasitic nematodes can compromise rice productivity. In a survey to identify plant parasitic nematodes on rice, cyst nematodes were encountered in rice fields that required characterization and identification. Phylogenetic analysis of the LSU D2-D3 region and ITS region could not separate the studied species from Heterodera elachista. However, phylogenetic analysis of the COI gene of the mitochondrial DNA clearly separated H. elachista from the new species into two different clusters. Combining morphology and molecular diagnostics, the species was identified as Heterodera oryzae belonging to the ‘Cyperi’ group whose cysts are characterized by vulval cones that are ambifenestrate, underbridge present with bullae. Second-stage juveniles have three incisors in the lateral field with long tails and long hyaline region.

Bacterial and Fungal Pathogen Synergetics after Co-infection in the Wheat (Triticum aestivum L.)

Wheat is one of the most important staple grains in the world and the leading source of calories, production is limited by biotic stress. There is a number of pathogen attacks on wheat crops, depending on environmental conditions. In some cases, more than one crop pathogen attack leads to higher damage or decrease susceptibility. There are very few studies in the field of multiple pathogen interactions; in this study, we analyzed the co-infectionof wheat with fungal and bacterial pathogens. Field isolated Xanthomonas translucens and Xanthomonas compestris bacteria have been used against GM-322 and PDKV varieties co-infected with Fusarium fungus spp. In our experiment, we used Fusarium oxysporum, Fusarium graminearum, Fusarium equitus. Compared to the combined effect of the fungus and bacteria, we measured the length and width of the infected leaf part. We have observed that there is more susceptibility to X. compestris and F. graminearium in the GM-322 wheat variety. The second susceptible cvs was PDKV when we co-infected F. oxysporum and then X. translucens fungal and bacterial infected symptom analysis showed yellow stripes on the leaf surface of the wheat crop. We observed head blight in wheat when it was infected with F. graminearum and X. compestris. As a result, we concluded that varietal susceptibility also depends on co-infection pathogen attacks and their synergetic interaction.

Effects of Stockholding Policy on Maize Prices: Evidence from Zambia

Abstract Many countries in the developing world use public stockholding programs to stabilize prices for both farmers and consumers. Governments directly purchase and store staple grains, and then sell them to processors or consumers, often at heavily subsidized prices. Despite the substantial costs of these stockholding programs, little is known about their effectiveness in mitigating retail price swings. This paper estimates the effects of purchase and sales activities of the Zambian Food Reserve Agency (FRA) on monthly maize market prices across more than thirty markets in Zambia from 2003 to 2008. To deal with the endogeneity in purchases and sales, we use predicted FRA purchase and sales targets as instrumental variables. Controlling for other policies, we find evidence that FRA activities stabilize retail prices in major district markets within the cropping year. Results show that FRA purchases raise local prices for surplus maize producers about 5 % on average at the time of harvest, and that FRA sales help lower the prices to consumers during the lean season up to 7 %. However, we find limited evidence that the FRA is able to reduce price volatility between years.

A Crop Simulation Model for Tef (Eragrostis tef (Zucc.) Trotter)

Tef is an Ethiopian staple grain that provides both food security and income for smallholders. As tef is nutritious and gluten free, it is also gaining popularity as a health food. A tef model was calibrated based on the Decision Support System for Agrotechnology Transfer’s (DSSAT) NWheat model and included parameter changes in phenology, photoperiod response, radiation use efficiency, and transpiration efficiency for both standard and elevated atmospheric CO2, based on published literature for tef and other C4 species. The new DSSAT-Tef model was compared with tef field experiments. DSSAT-Tef accurately simulated phenology and responded to changes in N supply and irrigation, but overestimated growth and occasionally yields. Simulation-observation comparisons resulted in an RMSE of 2.5 days for anthesis, 4.4 days for maturity, 2624 kg/ha (49.6%) for biomass, and 475 kg/ha (41.0%) for grain yield. Less data were available for N uptake, and the model simulated crop N uptake with an RMSE of 45 kg N/ha (46.2%) and 15 kg N/ha (37.3%) for grain N. While more data from contrasting environments are needed for further model testing, DSSAT-Tef can be used to assess the performance of crop management strategies, the suitability of tef for cultivation across growing environments, and food security.

Reducing Post Harvest Loss of Maize by Manufacturing and Introducing of Air Tight Silos Grain Storage in Selected Areas of Tigray, Ethiopia

The economy of Ethiopians depends chiefly on agriculture. The major staple grains are the most important field crops and the chief element in the diet of most Ethiopians. Maize is the largest and most productive crop in Ethiopia. In 2007/08, maize production was 4.2 million tons, 40 percent higher than teff, 56 percent higher than sorghum, and 75 percent higher than wheat production. Postharvest losses are major problem in enhancement of maize production. The main controlling mechanism to avoid these losses is using appropriate grain storage. As FAO introduced stated household metal silo is a key post-harvest technology in the fight against hunger and for food security. The house hold air tight metal silos generally hold between 100 and 3 000 kilos. The objective of this activity is to minimize post-harvest losses of maize grains by introducing this airtight silos in selected wordea’s of the region.
 Different air tight silos were manufactured according the SDC Manual for Manufacturing Metal Silos for Grain Storage in MAMRERC workshop. Preliminary test was conducted to check air leakage and strength of welding of the silo. Farmers were selected based on the willingness and resource they have. Weight loss, relative humidity, temperature, moisture content, count breakage from 1000kernel and insects occurred and farmer’s perception was collected in compiring with tradition silo and plastic bag.
 From these the air tight silo has low weight loss form 125gm initially and after recorded for six months the weight reduces to 122.6, 114.35, and 112.25gms respectivly. The moisture of maize grain decrease from 13% have different in the three containers 26.48, 28.72 and 27 and difference of -0.52, 1.72, and 0 and average Relative humidity's are 7.96, 4.96, and 3.96 for metal silo, traditional Gottera and plastic bag respectively. The counted and damaged from 1000 kernels are high in plastic bag and traditional silo. the farmers perception in relative advantage and characteristic of the silo are good.

Nutritional outcomes of empowerment and market integration for women in rural India

Over half of all women of reproductive age are affected by anaemia in India. In this paper we study the role that both household market integration and women’s empowerment in agriculture can play in determining women’s dietary diversity. Our analysis is based on primary data from 3600 households across India on agriculture, nutrition and anthropometric outcomes. We account for market integration by way of per capita household purchases (quantity) of cereals and non- cereal food groups, such as pulses, meat/ fish/ poultry, fruits and vegetables, eggs and dairy. We construct an adapted version of the Abbreviated Women’s Empowerment in Agriculture Index (A-WEAI) that is context- specific and agriculture- oriented. After controlling for individual, household and village- level explanatory factors, we find that – for a given level of per capita market purchases – women who are empowered in their agricultural decisions have significantly higher dietary diversity scores relative to women who are disempowered of such decisions. More specifically it is women’s empowerment in two areas: input in production decisions and membership in self- help groups that supports this result. Women’s empowerment also enhances dietary diversity in the presence of disaggregated per capita purchases of non-cereals such as pulses, meat, dairy and eggs. This highlights the importance of reorienting India’s agricultural price and procurement policies beyond staple grains to ensure better dietary diversity.

Analysis on the incentive effect of abolishment of agricultural tax in China staple grain production input

By integrating the process of abolishing the agricultural tax into the empirical analysis of regression discontinuity, this paper studies the incentive effect of the policy on different input types and the production of different food crops. According to research findings, mechanical operating cost is positively stimulated by the abolishment of agricultural tax, while the positive stimulation on fertilizer and labor costs degrades with time. From the perspective of different crops, the abolishment of agricultural tax has incentive effect on the fertilizer input to rice, corn and wheat, the labor input to rice and wheat, and the machinery input to corn. The method of regression discontinuity can determine whether the abolishment of agricultural tax has any incentive effect on crop production, but cannot identify the incentive scale. Therefore, appropriate instrumental variables are introduced in further study to identify the scale of incentives.

Women’s empowerment and nutrition status: The case of iron deficiency in India

In this paper we study the relationship between women’s empowerment in agriculture and their iron deficiency status in Maharashtra, India. This is the first time the Women’s Empowerment in Agriculture Index (WEAI) has been used in association with explicit measurement of medical biomarkers for women’s iron deficiency status. Using primary data for 960 women we find that the log odds of a poor iron status in women decline as women’s empowerment levels in agriculture improve. Further, this decline is seen in the presence of multiple dietary diversity measures (dietary diversity score, share of rice and wheat in the diet, total iron intake and iron intake from iron-rich food groups – all for 24-h and 30-day recalls) suggesting that in addition to dietary pathways women’s empowerment can play a role in addressing micronutrient deficiencies like those of iron in a vulnerable sub-group of the population. It also reinforces the need to move away from the ‘staple grain fundamentalism’ that has characterized agricultural policy in India, towards more nutrition-sensitive food systems.

The association between network centrality and standard of living in a historical agrarian population.

The aim of this study is to investigate the relationship between network centrality and living standards as measured by fertility and mortality responses to short-term economic stress. Cox proportional hazard models estimate the effects of staple grain price variation and eigenvector and beta centrality within marriage and labor networks on the timing of births and child mortality (1-14 years) in a historical demographic data set from North Orkney, Scotland, 1851-1911. Households that are peripheral to the marriage and labor network experience lower chances of a birth when food prices are high. The fertility of more central households is less sensitive to price changes. A similar, but weaker, pattern holds for child mortality, which is also sensitive to price fluctuations, although the social gradient is not as clear. Marriage and labor network centrality is an indicator of standard of living in this remote, agricultural population. Households that are firmly embedded in the network are able to overcome and adjust to short-term economic stress without demographic consequences, while those at the edges of the community experience delayed reproduction in poor years consistent with unplanned responses to stress.

Perspective: Refined Grains and Health: Genuine Risk, or Guilt by Association?

ABSTRACTRefined grain intake is widely assumed to be associated with adverse health outcomes, including increased risk for cardiovascular disease (CVD), type 2 diabetes (T2D), and obesity. The 2015 Dietary Guidelines Advisory Committee recommended that to improve dietary quality, the US population should replace most refined grains with whole grains. This recommendation was based largely on results from studies that examined dietary patterns, not separate food groups. A Western dietary pattern typically includes red and processed meat, sugar-sweetened foods and beverages, French fries, and high-fat dairy products, as well as refined grains, and has been linked to increased risk of many chronic diseases. However, when evaluated as a distinct food category, 11 meta-analyses of prospective cohort studies, which included a total of 32 publications with data from 24 distinct cohorts, demonstrated that refined grain intake was not associated with all-cause mortality, T2D, CVD, coronary heart disease (CHD), stroke, hypertension, or cancer. By contrast, consumption of red and processed meat was consistently associated with increased risk of these same health outcomes. Refined grain consumption up to 6–7 servings/d (1 serving = 30 g) was not associated with higher risk of CHD, T2D, hypertension, or all-cause mortality. Moreover, total grain intake was not associated with risk of CVD, CHD, stroke, or cancer, but was associated with lower risk of all-cause mortality. Consequently, the recommendation to reduce refined grain intake based on results from studies linking a Western dietary pattern to numerous adverse health outcomes is contrary to a substantial body of published scientific evidence. Future research needs to better define refined grain intake to distinguish between staple grain foods and indulgent grain foods, and to better design randomized controlled trials to resolve discrepancies between results from observational studies and such trials with regard to determining the benefits of whole grains compared with refined grains.