Stanislaw August Research Articles

O negatywnych skutkach pandemii COVID-19 i wojny dla piśmiennictwa historyczno-medycznego (analiza przypadku rozważań Renaty Elżbiety Paligi na temat dżumy w epoce stanisławowskiej)

On the adverse effects of the coronavirus pandemic and war on writing the history of medicine (on the example of Renata Elżbieta Paliga’s refl ections on the plague in the era of Stanislaw August Poniatowski) Renata Elżbieta Paliga’s book is a negative example of writing in the history of medicine, written under the infl uence of the coronavirus pandemic and the war. It was written in a hurry, on the wave of current epidemiological and military events, without a painstaking search for sources. Its author summarised Tadeusz Srogosz fi ndings, sometimes only indirectly using other bibliographical sources. The interpretations contained in the book are either logically fl awed or outright false.

Stanisław August Morawski – wybitna, niemedialna postać Polonii włoskiej

The aim of the article is to present the biography of Stanislaw August Morawski (1922–2019) – an outstanding figure of the Italian Polonia, who avoided media publicity. On the basis of a few available book sources and biographies published after his death in the Polish and Polonia press, introduced his life in Poland and in Italy and a huge number of his activities for Poland, Poles and the Polish community in Italy. S. Morawski was, among others, for many years the president of the Rome Foundation J.Z. Umiastowska, the Lanckoroński Foundation, co-founder of the Union of Poles in Italy and a member of its board, author of many publications on the history of Poles in the Apennine Peninsula.

A HUNDRED YEARS OF RESEARCH ON THE 18TH‑CENTURY THEATRE IN POLAND AND FRANCE

Among the modern researchers conducting studies on the 18th century, there is a widespread belief that research on Polish theatre of that era did not develop until the turn of the 1950s and 1960s. It is only part of the truth. The apogee of theatrical research coincided with those years, resulting from the 200th anniversary of the National Theatre, which was widely promoted by the authorities. However, the first diagnoses of Polish theatre scientists dealing with the 18th century are much earlier. Suffice it to recall Ludwik Bernacki’s monumental work, “Theatre, Drama and Music under Stanislaw August”, which the researcher published in Lviv in 1925. Bernacki’s research was closely related to the work of French theatre scientists, who conducted research on the scene and drama of the 18th century before the First World War. This article analyses and chronologically presents the last century of theatrical research and its methodological changes on the example of Polish and French history of 18th-century theatre.

Anatomia epidemii. Intelektualna walka Grzegorza Piramowicza z zarazą ospy prawdziwej w kontekście wypowiedzi Woltera i Tissota

The subject of the article is the attempt to spread vaccinations against smallpox undertaken by the circle of intellectuals gathered around king Stanislav August Poniatowski. There are two aspects described in the article. Educating the society by publishing effects of work conducted by doctors in Western Europe based on observations of medicine in the Far and Middle East. The second aspect is popularizing healthy behaviours amongst the readers of magazines and newspapers in the Stanislaw August Poniatowaski Era namely encouragement to vaccinate. The article is concentrated on the analysis of writings by Grzegorz Piramowicz published in “Zabawy Przyjemne i Pożyteczne” (Pleasant and Useful Games)” inspired by the Voltaire’s letter “On smallpox vaccinating”.

РОЗВИТОК КАМ'ЯНЦЯ НА ПОДІЛЛІ ЯК КОМПЛЕКСНОЇ ТУРИСТИЧНОЇ ДЕСТИНАЦІЇ: РЕСУРСИ КУЛЬТУРНО-ПІЗНАВАЛЬНОГО, НАЦІОНАЛЬНО-ПАТРІОТИЧНОГО, МІСТИЧНОГО ТА МЕМОРІАЛЬНОГО ТУРИЗМУ

The peculiarities of the resource base for the complex development of tourism in Kamianets-Podilskyi, in particular the cultural-cognitive, national-patriotic, mystical and memorial types of tourism are revealed. Resources of cultural, cognitive and mystical tourism are considered on the example of images of Coats of arms and Latin inscriptions on ancient buildings of the city-fortress. Tourist resources during the subordination of Podillya to the authorities of other states were emphasized: “Lithuanian” Kamianets, “Polish” Kamianets, “Turkish” Kamianets, “Armenian” Kamianets, “Jewish” Kamianets. The Polish-Lithuanian period of the city’s existence has left behind numerous Coats of arms and inscriptions in Latin on fortifications, including “autographs” of two Polish kings – Stefan Batory (1585 A. D.) and Stanislaw August Poniatowski (1785 A. D.), which are extremely valuable historical and tourist attractions, in particular for the development of mystical tourism. The resources of national and patriotic tourism are related to the capital status of the city of Kamianets-Podilskyi during the UPR in 1919–1920. As for the resources of memorial tourism, they are related to the Holocaust of the Jewish population in Ukraine during World War II. Ten places of the most massive executions of Jews in Ukraine by the Nazi occupation authorities during World War II have been identified and described in the corresponding table. Crimes in Kyiv (Babyn Yar – almost 34 thousand people) and in Odessa (25 thousand people) have had the largest number of victims. The third-largest number of victims was the Kamyanets-Podilsky Massacre (23,000 people), but it was the first chronological case of the Nazi massacre of Jewish population in Ukraine. The peculiarities of the mass extermination of the Jewish population in Kamianets-Podilskyi, where a ghetto was created not only for the local Jewish population, but also for deported Jews from Hungary, are highlighted. Three “waves” of memorialization of Holocaust memorial sites in Kamianets-Podilskyi have been identified, the main monuments of the Holocaust have been described, and directions for its further memorialization and using in tourism have been proposed.

Biblioteka kozienicka Stanisława Augusta

Pałac Stanisława Augusta Poniatowskiego w Kozienicach był wzniesiony w stylu późnego baroku, ale burzliwe jego dzieje stopniowo zacierały ślady jego pierwotnej świetności. Splądrowany w 1794 r., w latach 1815-1830 był przeznaczony na koszary wojskowe, a od 1831 r. stał się własnością gen. Ivana Dena i jego rodziny. Swój klasycystyczny wystrój architektoniczny pałac utracił w latach 1896-1900, gdy przebudowano go w modnym wówczas stylu renesansu francuskiego. W czasie II wojny światowej obiekt uległ zniszczeniu. Artykuł omawia podręczną bibliotekę gabinetową króla Stanisława Augusta, która dotąd nie była przedmiotem żadnej monografii. Autor wykorzystał rękopiśmienny jej katalog z 1785 r., przechowywany w Bibliotece Czartoryskich. Ten niewielki dokument (liczący 7 s.), spisany przez niejakiego Smoczeńskiego, uwzględniał spis 149 dzieł w 349 tomach. Został on dołączony do artykułu.

Politinės ir geopolitinės Augustino Midletono refleksijos (1790–1792)

POLITICAL AND GEOPOLITICAL REFLECTIONS BY AUGUSTYN MIDDLETON (1790–1792) The article presents personality and activities of Augustyn Middleton, nobleman from Kaunas powiat, with the main focus on assessing this person in the light of political events in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth and the geopolitical situation. At the centre of this research is the period from the reinstatement of the diplomatic mission of the Commonwealth in The Hague on 14 April 1790 to the end of activities of the Four-Year Sejm. The article reveals that Augustyn Middleton, assigned by Stanislaw August to the diplomatic mission of the Commonwealth in the United Provinces of the Netherlands, was the agent of the King, who had to inform the King’s cabinet on activities of Envoy Extraordinary and Minister Plenipotentiary Mihał Kleofas Ogiński and to promote the reforms by the Four-Year Sejm in the foreign press thus shaping a positive public opinion in Western Europe regarding changes in Poland and Lithuania. Due to benevolent circumstances A. Middleton was able to reach the rank of embassy resident, however the horizons of his diplomatic career were limited by available finances. Political views of A. Middleton reflected aims declared by the fraction of Stanislaw August’s court: to create a strong and prospering monarchy, hoping that the state will be able to regain its glorious past. A. Middleton promoted constitutional monarchy, inheritable throne, regulation of activities of the Sejm and the dietines (sejmiki), granting of political rights to townspeople, and economic development of the country. While supporting the idea of a centralized state, A. Middleton did not reflect on the rights of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania or the topic of a binary state. In assessing economic changes in Europe A. Middleton opposed the physiocrats, emphasizing that the most powerful form of capital comes not from agriculture but from banking. However, he was not afraid to admit that his knowledge of economics was not sufficient to explain the processes of financial capital. Ideas of religious tolerance, promoted by A. Middleton, his cosmopolite view of collaboration between states and nations, active interest in political and social transformations in Europe through anonymous polemical publications in foreign press on the topics of revolution allow for bringing the nobleman from Kaunas powiat A. Middleton into the circle of yet unknown people of the Enlightenment. Keywords: reforms of the Four-Year Sejm (1788–1792), diplomatic service, international relations, diplomatic mission of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, Augustyn Middleton.

Antique Inspirations in the Ideological Programmes of Artworks of King Stanisław August’s Patronage (1764-1795)

This article examines certain artworks produced under the patronage of Stanislaw August, King of Poland, which were inspired by ancient art, history and literature. In this respect, he was no diffe...

“People”, “Peoples” - How the May 3, 1791 Constitution framers defined what the People is and handled the duality of the Commonwealth of the Two Nations

AbstractIn the Commonwealth of the Two Nations, significant legal texts were implemented under the rule of King Stanislaw August, the most important being the Constitution of May 3, 1791, adopted during the Four-Year Sejm (1788-1792). Its framers faced numerous challenges, first, because then only nobles were considered as constituting the Republic, one was to define who should be considered as a member of the People, who could be elected deputy to the Sejm, and at which condition. Second, since the 1569 Union of Lublin the Commonwealth is made of two distinct states: Poland (the Crown) and the Grand-Duchy of Lithuania, drafters had to handle Lithuanian statehood in a Constitution, which was primarily seen as a way to enhance unification of the two nations. Third, the Grand-Duchy of Lithuania having its own legislation, enclosed in the Lithuanian statute, (adopted in 1529, followed with a Second Statute in 1566, and a Third Statute in 1588), the question of its maintaining or not too had to be taken into consideration by framers. We hope that considering how these different issues were handled will shed a new light on the permanence of Lithuanian laws and political tradition in the May 3 Constitution.

The Wettins and the Issue of Inheritance of the Polish-Lithuanian State Throne in the Context of the Constitution of May 3, 1791: Position of the Lithuanian Nobility

AbstractThe article analyses attitudes of the Lithuanian nobility towards the inheritance of the throne of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth (the Commonwealth) in the period of the Four-Year Sejm (1788-1792). Thorough analysis of historiography and research of narrative sources amplifies the position of the Lithuanian nobility towards the issue of inheritance of the throne of the Commonwealth as it was reflected in the political literature of 1787-1789 period. Analysis of the documents produced by the February and November dietines (Pol. sejmiks), 1790 of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania (the GDL) reveals changes in the position of nobility towards selection of the successor to the throne with the king still alive. It was established, that in supporting the idea of a hereditary throne, Lithuanian political writers suggested different strategies in realizing this idea and proposed as candidates for the throne representatives of ruling dynasties of several states: Russia, Prussia, Saxony and Great Britain.Changes in the position of nobility were significantly influenced by the activism of patriotic-reformist faction, which proposed the very idea of a hereditary throne and a candidate from the dynasty of Wettins: the GDL districts (Pol. powiats), having ignored the question of throne inheritance in the February dietines of 1790, in November of the same year agreed to the selection of Elector of Saxony as the successor to the King of Poland and the Grand Duke of Lithuania Stanislaw August. However, even if agreeing to the Wettin candidacy, the GDL nobility did not support establishing of the principle of such inheritance. Most of the GDL dietines supported limited monarchy, politically and financially dependent on the political will of the nation. The Elector of Saxony was given certain conditions, the departure from which was to bring back an elective monarchy.

Užsienio mokslininko adaptacija Lietuvos Didžiojoje Kunigaikštystėje: dr. Jeano-Emmanuelio Gilibertʼo atvejis

ADAPTATION OF A FOREIGN SCIENTIST IN THE GRAND DUCHY OF LITHUANIA: CASE OF DR JEAN-EMMANUEL GILIBERT On the basis of correspondence between Jean-Emmanuel Gilibert and the King of Poland and Grand Duke of Lithuania Stanislaw August, the article reveals issues of adaptation of a foreign scientist in the late eighteenth-century Grand Duchy of Lithuania. The attention is focused on the life of J.-E. Gilibert, his financial situation, his life and work conditions with the emphasis on health problems and psychological situation of the scientist, as well as the circumstances of his return to France. The research revealed, that one of the most important problems that faced J.-E. Gilibert upon his arrival to the Grand Duchy of Lithuania was the insufficient financing of his life and work. There were problems with his salary as the payments were late by half-year or more. Because of the non-payment of his designated salary, the scientist was forced to borrow with high interest in France and send money to Lithuania. Analysis of the correspondence shows that even upon the ninth year of his arrival to Lithuania, J.-E. Gilibert was still demanding to be paid for the time he was the director of the school in Grodno. J.-E. Gilibert was not satisfied with his living conditions in Grodno. In his contract with Antoni Tyzenhaus it was stated, that J.-E. Gilibert and his family will be provided with the living quarters suited for his status as doctor. However, the scientist was especially unhappy and even shocked that musicians of the town theatre and dancers lived much more comfortably than he did. The environment in Grodno also affected psychological condition of the scientist. J.-E. Gilibert enjoyed sharing his observations and to learn from experience of other researchers. However, he seriously lacked such social ties in Grodno. J.-E. Gilibert suffered from the feeling of isolation because he did not speak Polish and was unable to freely communicate with Grodno inhabitants, except for other foreigners. Keywords: Jean-Emmanuel Gilibert, Royal Medical School in Grodno, everyday life story.

Radom jako miejsce obrad sejmików i lokalnych zjazdów szlacheckich w drugiej połowie XVIII wieku

Osiemnastowieczny Radom, choć był miastem stosunkowo niewielkim, do 1763 r. był miejscem obrad Trybunału Skarbowego Koronnego, przez co odgrywał istotną rolę w życiu szlachty. Panowanie Stanisława Augusta odebrało Radomiowi status „miasta trybunalskiego”, na szczeblu lokalnym wzmocniło jednak jego rolę poprzez ustanowienie lokalnych sejmików. Od XVI w. województwo sandomierskie, którego częścią był powiat radomski, obradowało wspólnie w Opatowie, sejm konwokacyjny, wprowadzając odrębny sąd ziemski dla powiatów chęcińskiego, opoczyńskiego i radomskiego, miejscem elekcji jego urzędników naznaczył jednak Radom. W 1768 r. podjęto też próbę ustanowienia w Radomiu sejmików deputackich. Reforma z 1791 r. przewidywała z kolei w mieście obrady sejmików poselskich z jednoczesnym zmniejszeniem okręgu sejmików elekcyjnych do samego powiatu radomskiego. Nowe prawo obowiązywało jednak zaledwie kilka miesięcy. W analizowanym okresie w Radomiu odbywały się także zjazdy nieprzewidziane prawem, a związane z konfederacją barską (1769), konfederacją targowicką (1792) i insurekcją kościuszkowską (1794). Ogółem na przestrzeni lat 1765–1794 w Radomiu zebrało się sześć sejmików i trzy zjazdy.

Wileńska poezja okolicznościowa doby stanisławowskiej. Od projektu antologii do problemów edycji

The article presents plans to prepare an anthology of Lithuanian commemorative poetry written during the Reign of Stanislaw August Poniatowski. Libraries of Vilnius are in possession of numerous surviving pieces of commemorative poetry from the second half of the 18th century, especially from the years 1762–1794. It is hard to define the number of poems of that kind. Their authors are both students and professors of Vilnius universities, representatives of nobility and the clergy, as well as outstanding poets from that period. The prints serve as evidence of the literary culture of Vilnius, and are a kind of a literary chronicle of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania from the second half of the 18th century. The reason for their creation were both the major events of that period, such as an inauguration of bishop Ignacy Jakub Massalski (1762), election of Stanislaw August (1764), celebrations of anniversaries of the monarch’s election and coronation, his birthdays and name days, the completion of the proceedings of the Main Tribunal of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania – as well as family events and celebrations: baptisms, weddings, name days and funerals of various individuals. There are also compositions devoted to less important events, such as duchess Teofilia Morawska of the Radziwills’ return from a journey to Nieświez. Publishing an anthology of Vilnius commemorative poetry from that period is a chance to create a poetic chronicle of Vilnius and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania in the second half of the 18 th century. Preparing an anthology requires long preparations of various sort. Some of the poems are stored as separate prints, but in catalogues they appear under different titles, which sometimes have nothing to do with the author of the topic, some of the texts are published jointly with other prints or catalogued as manuscripts. One of the most important tasks is to define the author of all commemorative poems from that period, since they were not signed, but merely supplemented with the place which they came from. Vilnius commemorative poetry from the second half of 18 th century undoubtedly deserves attention. It refers to the major events from political and public life, it is evidence of commitment of those individuals to whom it was addressed, and also constitutes an element of the public life, as the compositions were often presented during various celebrations and referred to the symbols present in the public space.

Problemy edytorskie wydania Zbioru mniejszego poezji polskich drobniejszych Józefa Epifaniego Minasowicza

The article is a description of the proposal of a critical edition of Zbior mniejszy poezji polskich drobniejszych by Jozef Epifani Minasowicz, a Polish poet of the late Saxon period and the Reign of Stanislaw August Poniatowski. The author describes the problems which have to be faced by a publisher of texts from the past, willing to make readers familiar with the legacy of such a prolific writer. Zbior has over 270 pages and is the smallest volume among the works by Minasowicz, who was an extremely hard-working poet, an interpreter, an editor and a publisher, widely acclaimed by his contemporaries, but almost completely forgotten today. The article presents the most important problems concerning the process of preparing an edition, such as: selecting the type of edition, representativeness of the collection, and rules of edition. A factor worth mentioning is the situation ideal for an editor, in which an author of numerous lengthy volumes of low literary value, and at the same time deserving the attention of contemporary readers, had himself prepared a selection of his works: divided into smaller sections, systematized, and supplemented with explanations. It is only such a selection by the author that allows for preparing a critical edition, and only such an edition is useful in a cognitive sense. The analysis also includes doubts concerning the representativeness of the collection, which the author contradicts against the benefits from describing the character of the 18th century poet.

From the cellar to the table. Modesty, moderation and economy of Polish nobles’ drinking culture in the second half of the 18th century (based on inventories of drinks served in noble and aristocratic households)

“Za krola Sasa jedz, pij i popuszczaj pasa” (During the Reign of a Saxon king, eat, drink and loosen your belt), is the saying that probably best reflects the characteristics of the drinking culture in the first half of the 18th century Poland. The publications on the history of alcohol consumption, however, do not include any subtle differentiation of periods of excessive drunkenness and sobriety, depicting the entire Old-Polish period as a constant carnival of toasts made with cups filled with the best and most expensive wines. Studies on old Polish customs have preserved this image of excessive and festive consumption to a large extent. What we know about drinking in Poland of the past is usually derived from reports describing feasts, banquets and special events. However, we seldom have a chance to take a closer look at the everyday, less spectacular consumption. The aim of this paper is to show in more detail this daily, ordinary consumption rather than to construct an image of Polish drinking based on reports and information concerning festive and special times. Such an approach is possible thanks to the preserved sources, which document daily consumption of drinks at the courts of aristocracy and nobility. As examples I have chosen reports on daily consumption at the courts of Aleksandra Oginskia in Siedlce, Adam Kazimierz Czartoryski in Sieniawa, Izabella Branicka in Bialystok and the royal court of Stanislaw August Poniatowski in Warsaw. All these documents register at least a few months of alcohol consumption at each court. They were also chosen in view of the similar period in which these documents were created (2nd half of the 18th c.) The analysis of serial documents provided information on trends and consumption statistics. Qualitative research embedded the data on alcoholic beverages in a cultural context . It also allowed to understand the role of alcohol in diet and everyday life. The serial documents was supplemented with single documents on consumption at the particular household, which enabled an analysis of how alcoholic beverages were administered and to what extent savings policies were implemented.

„Entretiens” Stanisława Augusta z ambasadorem rosyjskim Ottonem Magnusem von Stackelbergiem i „Mémoires” ostatniego króla Rzeczypospolitej

Entretiens of King Stanislaus Augustus with Russian ambassador Otto Magnus von Stackelberg, and Memoirs of the Commonwealth’s last king Among the most important historical sources for the reign of Stanislaw August one should list Entretiens abbreviated notices of Stanislaw August’s talks with the Russian Ambassador Otto von Stackelberg. This article approaches the structure, the state of survival, the date of composition and the authorship of the Entretiens as well as their content and the nature of information included. The Entretiens , firstly conceived as short notes, evolved into more and more complex and specific reports, so the king could easily find every essential piece of information about Polish-Russian relations in one place. Some of the talks recorded in the Entretiens were later included in King’s Memoirs , hence the second part of this article attempts at a comparison between the two. It reveals that the order of events described in Memoirs agrees with what we find in Entretiens , therefore we know that the latter was exploited during the composition of the Memoirs . The author of the present study was lucky to have found among the documents reclaimed from Russia a clean copy of Entretiens from 1779, which allows us to hope that in Russian archives there are still even later the yearbooks, which supposedly might have helped the King in the work on other volumes of Memoirs . Moreover, the author’s intention was to suggest a method which would allow to evaluate reliability of the Memoirs . Owing to a partial comparative analysis of both sources one can conclude that the king wanted to protect his loved ones from being seen as anti-Russian and to avoid criticism of Catherine II. Stackelberg was the only one described exactly as how the king knew him. However, it does not undermine reliability of the Memoirs in general.

„Wychowawca! O jakaż wzniosła musi to być dusza!” Prywatne guwernantki dziewcząt w czasach stanisławowskich

In Stanislaw August Poniatowski’s time, the upbringing and education of wealthy noblewomen were commonly entrusted to foreign governesses. There was a strong conviction in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth that command of foreign languages was the foundation of proper and careful upbringing of young women. Many parents were not discerning clients when it came to selecting a governess. Oftentimes, foreign origin sufficed. As a result of attaching so much importance to command of foreign languages accompanied by acquiring foreign manners, costumes and customs, young Polish women grew indifferent to their mother tongue, native culture and traditions. There was also a lack of sense of responsibility for the country’s future.

DAILY LIFE OF AN ACTIVE WOMAN: EPISODE FROM THE LIFE OF IZABELA LUDWIKA BORCH PLATEROWA (1752–1813)

On the basis of empirical sources the article analyses the daily life of a noblewoman from the Grand Duchy of Lithuania Izabela Ludwika Borch Platerowa (1752–1813), with a special focus on several elements of the daily life of the late eighteenth century woman of the elite: time management and daily routine, food and diet, health (illnesses and their treatment), and relationships with family members (husband, children, parents) and the near environment. The article underlines the network of communication of the duchess Platerowa in a given period, covering not only family members or the spiritual and political elite of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and Livonia but also artists residing in Warsaw, among them closest being Italian born artist and poet Antoni Albertrandy (ca. 1733–1795) from the court of the King Stanislaw August, and his family. Despite the micro-world of Izabela Ludwika Platerowa being framed within two socially important factors of the time, i.e. social status of a noblewoman and her gender, which would confine the field of activities of a woman to the privacy of a home-space, the ties of partnership, love and respect, linking husband and wife in the Plater family, opened wide opportunities for the creative activities of the woman. As active and educated woman of the Enlightenment, she managed to cross the frame of her home-space and dedicate large portion of her time to important public activities: editing of a special reading publication for children Przyjaciel dzieci (A Friend of Children), on which she intensely worked 6–8 hours every day. Schedule of the duchess was occupied with Masses, teaching of children and translations. Personal needs and entertainment received very little attention, only from a quarter to half an hour a day. In the period of Lent very strict fasting was observed, as well as abstinence from any entertainment, including full renouncing of music. Keywords: Izabela Ludwika Borch Platerowa (1752–1813), daily life, family, history of women.

Sejmiki ziemi liwskiej 1780–1786

Artykuł dotyczy sejmików ziemi liwskiej wchodzącej w skład województwa mazowieckiego. W latach 1780–1786 szlachta na obradach w Liwie wybierała posłów na sejm, a także rozstrzygała problemy o charakterze samorządowym. W tekście przedstawione zostały przygotowania do sejmików, ich prze­bieg oraz podjęte uchwały. Ziemia liwska była zdominowana przez stronnictwo regalistyczne, w którym czołowe role odgrywały rodziny Cieszkowskich i Cieciszowskich. Najaktywniejszym parlamentarzystą był sędzia ziemski liwski Ignacy Cieciszowski, który w latach 1780–1786 trzykrotnie był wybierany posłem na sejm. Na jego pozycję wpłynęło wsparcie brata Adama, w okresie 1780–1783 kierującego Gabinetem Stanisława Augusta. Związki liderów miejscowej szlachty ze stronnictwem regalistycznym nie miały dużego wpływu na treść instrukcji poselskich, natomiast znajdowały wyraz w działalności reprezentantów ziemi liwskiej w parlamencie.

Orzeł Biały z 1 VIII 1919 roku – idealny wzór polskiego orła państwowego czy „heraldyczne nieszczęście”? Uwagi na marginesie inicjatywy obywatelskiej w sprawie przywrócenia „tradycyjnego” herbu Rzeczypospolitej

1 sierpnia 1919 r. Sejm Ustawodawczy przyjął ustawę o polskich godłach państwowych. Posłowie w trakcie obrad parlamentarnych zgłosili szereg wątpliwości w sprawie formy Orła Białego przedłożonego do poselskiej akceptacji. Pomimo zastrzeżeń i wątpliwości Sejm przyjął zgłoszoną regulację. Ustawa z 1919 r. nie zakończyła dyskusji na temat polskich znaków państwowych, a jedynie wprowadziła znak tymczasowy i zapowiedziała jego uszczegółowienie. Godło przyjęte 1 sierpnia 1919 r. było jednym z trzech znaków w grupie ważnych orłów rywalizujących u progu II Niepodległości o miano godła państwowego. Dwa pozostałe godła – orzeł Kazimierza Kierskiego z początku 1917 r. lub nawet z końca 1916 r. i orzeł Bronisława Gembarzewskiego z początku 1917 r. – w różnym czasie pełniły funkcje polskich znaków przedpaństwowych, a nawet funkcje polskich znaków państwowych po 11 listopada 1918 r. Orzeł z sierpnia 1919 r. sylwetą odwoływał się do tradycji polskich znaków państwowych z końca XVIII i XIX w. Wyrażał ciągłość państwa i akcentował przywiązanie twórców godła do tradycji powstania listopadowego i – werbalnie – do herbu ustanowionego przez Sejm i Rząd Narodowy na początku 1831 r. Słuszne założenie o zachowaniu ciągłości z decyzjami władz powstańczych z 1831 r. jednakowoż nie zostało w 1919 r. dobrze zrealizowane. Orzeł z sierpnia 1919 r. był inny od orła z 1831 r., a także został gorzej od niego narysowany. Z tego powodu podjęte zostały prace, które finalnie przynieść miały lepszy wzór godła. Od sierpnia 1919 r. w Ministerstwie Sztuki i Kultury, a następnie w Ministerstwie Wyznań Religijnych i Oświecenia Publicznego przygotowywano nowe wersje godła Rzeczypospolitej. Prace nadzorowane przez aparat państwowourzędniczy II Rzeczypospolitej zmierzały do stworzenia znaku, który stylizacją nawiązywałby do godła z sierpnia 1919 r. Równolegle do prac ministerialnych czołowi graficy ówczesnej Polski opracowywali własne Orły Białe, często wzorując się na orłach jagiellońskich. Na uwagę zasługują prace prof. Zygmunta Kamińskiego i Zofii Trzcińskiej-Kamińskiej. Zaprojektowane przez nich w 1924 i 1925 r. orły zainteresowały rządzących Polską po zamachu majowym z 1926 r. i rządzący ci zlecili w 1927 r., aby prof. Kamiński przygotował wzór nowego herbu Rzeczypospolitej. Orzeł Biały prof. Z. Kamińskiego z 1927 r. formą odbiegał od wzoru z sierpnia 1919 r., a jakością wykonania wyraźnie przewyższał dotychczasowe godło. Kontrowersje wzbudziła zmiana korony na głowie orła. W miejsce korony zamkniętej prof. Kamiński wprowadził koronę otwartą. Dla polityków i dla zwolenników ugrupowań prawicowo-narodowych taka korekta – szczególnie, że nastąpiła po zbrojnym zamachu stanu w maju 1926 r. i bez udziału parlamentu – była nie do zaakceptowania. Dyskusja wywołana zmianą formy korony, czy szerzej – zmianą formy polskiego orła państwowego w 1927 r. trwa do dziś. Heraldycy i politycy spierają się, czy w herbie Rzeczypospolitej powinna być korona otwarta, czy też korona zamknięta, a politycy prawicowo-narodowi podpowiadają, że Rzeczypospolitej należy przywrócić jej tradycyjne godło, a tym tradycyjnym godłem – według polityków prawicowo-narodowych – jest orzeł z sierpnia 1919 r. Odpowiedź na pytanie o właściwą formę polskiego orła państwowego, a także o rodzaj jego korony nie jest łatwa. Źródła (w tym przypadku analizowane były królewskie pieczęcie) sugerują odpowiedź. W długim trwaniu, w okresie przedrozbiorowym polski orzeł ukoronowany był koroną otwartą. Ponadto w 1831 r. Sejm powstańczej Polski i jej rząd zgodnie przyjęli herb z orłem „jagiellońskim” ukoronowanym także koroną otwartą. Korona zamknięta na głowie orła na pieczęciach pojawiła się w okresie panowania Stanisława Augusta Poniatowskiego. Była popularna w przedstawieniach polskiego orła w XIX w. i ta dziewiętnastowieczna tradycja korony zamkniętej wpłynęła na treść dwudziestowiecznej dyskusji o godle Rzeczypospolitej.