Stands Of Vegetation Research Articles

Spatial and diel availability of flying insects as potential duckling food in prairie wetlands

We examined spatial and diel availability of flying insects that are a critical food resource to young ducklings. We sampled insects in three native prairie wetlands on the Woodworth Study Area of south-central North Dakota. Insects were sampled with floating sticky traps within emergent macrophyte, edge, and open water microhabitat zones. Sampling took place from 12 June to 4 July 1995, a period that coincided with peak dabbling duck (Anas spp.) hatching in this region. Our sticky trans collected 28,527 insects and spiders totaling at least 32 families and 150 species. Chironomidae (Diptera) was the most abundant group, constituting 60% of the total insect count and 32.9% of the biomass (mg dry weight). Mixed-model ANOVA showed that a population of similar undisturbed wetlands may show differences in insect availability when considering both time and space, primarily due to differences in community structure among sites. In spite of these significant random effects, interactions between or among the fixed date, zone, and trap-height effects significantly influenced insect availability. Insects stratified near the water surface in open water areas on all dates except during cool, rainy weather (28 June); on this date, insects were virtually absent from open water. Vertical stratification of insects was less prevalent within and at the edge of stands of emergent vegetation, although most insects were present in the emergent zone near the water surface during inclement weather. ANOVA models from our diel study showed that a significant diel pattern in insect availability existed among zones, but this interaction also depended upon trap-height (chironomid biomass) or date (chironomid counts and biomass). Generally, more insect numbers and biomass were captured in and along stands of emergent macrophytes during the day but chiefly in open water near the surface at night. This diel-zone effect was especially apparent for large chironomids, which were essentially absent during daylight but abundant in open water and edge zones during night. Daytime chironomids were small and predominantly trapped in stands of emergent vegetation. Our results are consistent with previously documented brood foraging behavior and may indicate a trade-off between low energy foraging in the open at night and potentially safer but less productive foraging in stands of emergent vegetation during the day.

Soil Characteristics of Rehabilitating and Unmined Coastal Dunes at Richards Bay, KwaZulu‐Natal, South Africa

AbstractThe postmining rehabilitation of coastal sand dunes north of Richards Bay (28°43′S, 32°12′E), South Africa, is resulting in the development of a series of known‐aged stands of vegetation dominated by Acacia karroo (sweet thorn). Other broad‐leaved species are establishing themselves in rehabilitating areas more than 12 years of age. Soils from rehabilitating stands 3–5, 9–12, 13–15, and 16–18 years of age, from two disturbed, unmined stands 30 and 58 years of age, and from a mature unmined stand were examined to assess age‐related trends in selected soil properties. Individually, these stands represent a series of different developmental stages of a coastal dune successional sere. Soil organic material, percentage organic carbon and concentrations of sodium, potassium, magnesium, calcium, and nitrogen increased with an increase in habitat regeneration age. Concentrations of most of these elements were lower than those recorded on the 58‐year‐old unmined and mature unmined stands. Multivariate analyses suggest, however, that the similarity of these values for rehabilitating stands to those for the unmined stands increased with an increase in regeneration age. The growth response of Raphanus sativus (radish) plants, based on mass attained under experimental growing conditions in soil collected from these stands, suggests an increase in soil fertility with an increase in regeneration age.

Peat characteristics and groundwater geochemistry of calcareous fens in the Minnesota River Basin, U.S.A.

Calcareous fens in Minnesota are spring-seepage peatlands with adistinctive flora of rare calciphilic species. Peat characteristics andgroundwater geochemistry were determined for six calcareous fens in theMinnesota River Basin to better understand the physical structure andchemical processes associated with stands of rare vegetation. Onset of peataccumulation in three of the fens ranged from about 4,700 to 11,000 14C yrs BP and probably resulted from acombination of climate change and local hydrogeologic conditions. Most peatcores had a carbonate-bearing surface zone with greater than 10%carbonates (average 27%, dry wt basis), an underlyingcarbonate-depleted zone with 10% or less carbonates (average4%), and a carbonate-bearing lower zone again with greater than10% carbonates (average 42%). This carbonate zonation washypothesized to result from the effect of water-table level on carbonateequilibria: carbonate precipitation occurs when the water table is above acritical level, and carbonate dissolution occurs when the water table islower. Other processes that changed the major ion concentrations inupwelling groundwater include dilution by rain water, sulfate reduction orsulfide oxidation, and ion adsorption or exchange. Geochemical modelingindicated that average shallow water in the calcareous fens during the studyperiod was groundwater mixed with about 6 to 13% rain water.Carbonate precipitation in the surface zone of calcareous fens could bedecreased by a number of human activities, especially those that lower thewater table. Such changes in shallow water geochemistry could alter thegrowing conditions that apparently sustain rare fen vegetation.

A low-frequency radar experiment for measuring vegetation biomass

Optical depth and backscatter measures were made at 18 frequencies between 50 and 450 MHz on two forest stands having dry biomass densities of 323 and 87 tons/ha to identify radar frequencies capable of penetrating heavy stands of vegetation. Good separation between stands was only achieved below 120 MHz.

End-of-season soil water depletion in relation to growth of herbaceous vegetation in a sub-humid Mediterranean dwarf-shrub community on two contrasting soils

Dwarf-shrub communities of Sarcopoterium spinosum dominate large areas of the landscape on hilly, eastern Mediterranean rangelands. Colonisation of new areas depends on the establishment of seedlings that must compete for water with the ubiquitous annual herbaceous species during the spring-winter growing season and also survive the first hot, dry summer. The present study investigated the role of the herbaceous vegetation patches growing between S. spinosum shrubs on the depletion of soil water during the critical transition period between the cool, rainy season and the dry summer. Dense and sparse herbaceous vegetation stands were established in S. spinosum dwarf-shrub communities by differential use of fertiliser on two contrasting soil types – a terra rossa overlying hard limestone where seedling establishment is low and a pale rendzina overlying a soft chalk substrate where seedling establishment is high. Soil water in the main root zone of the herbaceous vegetation between the shrubs was monitored with protected gypsum block sensors permanently placed at two depths (10 and 33 cm). Soil water depletion during the transition from the wet to the dry season was significantly more rapid under dense vegetation only on the terra rossa soil where the herbaceous vegetation also matured more rapidly than on the rendzina soil. However, in both habitats and under both dense and sparse vegetation, soil water depletion during the transition period left very little available water in the rooting zone of the herbaceous vegetation to maintain shrub seedlings throughout the summer. It was concluded that the difference in shrub seedling establishment success in the two habitats mainly reflects the differences in accessibility of water below the rooting zone of the herbaceous vegetation growing on the two contrasting soil types.

Atmospheric input of dust and nitrogen into the Nizzana sand dune ecosystem, north-western Negev, Israel

Atmospheric input of nutrients, mainly in the form of particulates, is widely accepted as a major but still poorly known contribution to the nutrient budgets of arid ecosystems. As part of integrated ecosystem studies, dust and nitrogen deposition was monitored at the Nizzana test site in the southern part of the north-western Negev dune field. The main approach was to investigate the contribution of atmospheric input to the spatial distribution of a dune stabilizing biological crust.Atmospheric input of dust at Nizzana is fairly low and originates, except for singular long-range transport dust storm events, mainly from local sources. Spatial input patterns within the dune field are generated by topographically forced disturbance of the local wind field. Net deposition rates are about 6% of bulk dust deposition and roughly correspond to the overall input pattern. Most effective is the depositional balance on the encrusted stable slope units and within higher vegetation stands. Surface fine material contents on the encrusted slopes obviously are in a state of equilibrium with net dust deposition rates. However, the spatial pattern of both bulk and net deposition does not coincide with the distribution and thickness of the biogenic crust.Active growth of cryptogames in aerodynamically stable environmental units and differences in the microhydrological budget relative to aspect and slope angle may play a much more important role than fine material input. The biological crusts do not act as a trap for dust.The overall input of total nitrogen is shown to be a function of regional phases of soil cultivation combined with strong north-westerly winds during the summer half year. At Nizzana-South both water and nitrogen are limiting factors for plant growth whereas in the northern dune field potential nitrogen fixation rates increase exponentially relative to the rainfall gradient, but low atmospheric input of nitrogen still is a limiting factor.

Podzolization under forest and stump prairie vegetation in northern Michigan

The contrast in vegetation between the second-growth forests of northern Michigan and the nearby `stump prairies' is striking. Prior to the logging and fires of the late nineteenth century both areas supported dense forest. Neither geomorphological surface boundaries nor soil drainage patterns appear to explain the origin and maintenance of the contrasting vegetation types. Representative pedons of forest and stump prairie vegetation stands were sampled. Soil texture was not different between the forest and stump prairie sites, but spodic horizon development, as shown by illuvial accumulations of Fe, Al, and OC, was slightly stronger where forest regeneration has occurred than in the stump prairie. Ortstein content represents the primary difference between the soils in forested and stump prairie areas. The relative lack of ortstein in the nutrient-poor and droughty soils may therefore have been a factor in the origin of the stump prairie. Other factors, such as pre-logging forest vegetation and logging-era wildfires, were probably also involved. The soils were examined for evidence of podzolization processes. The distribution of extractable Fe and Al in the soils indicates that organically bound sesquioxides are most common in the Bhs and ortstein portions of Bs horizons, while inorganic forms of Fe and Al become more abundant in the lower B horizon. These data are best explained as a result of two sets of processes: (1) the translocation of organically bound sesquioxides into the B horizon, and (2) the further translocation of Al (and perhaps Fe) as amorphous aluminosilicate complexes. Both sets of processes appear to be active in the soils simultaneously.

Modelling canopy photosynthesis using parameters determined from simple non‐destructive measurements

AbstractMost models for canopy photosynthesis require a large number of parameters as input which have to be determined by means of direct measurements. Such measurements are usually expensive, time consuming and destructive. The objective of the present study was, therefore, to develop a simple but accurate canopy photosynthesis model based on a minimum number of parameters that can be determined non‐destructively. The results from previous studies were used to derive an empirical expression which describes the variation in leaf photosynthetic capacity (Pm) as a function of the light distribution in the canopy. The light distribution itself was calculated with a simple model which assumes only three leaf angle classes (0–30°, 30–60° and 60–90°). The leaf area index was determined indirectly from measurements of direct radiation below the canopy. The result was a model for canopy photosynthesis that requires only a few parameters. These parameters are the leaf photosynthetic capacity at the top of the canopy, the relative frequency of leaves in each of the three leaf angle classes, and the fraction of direct radiation below the canopy. Each of these parameters can be determined by means of simple non‐destructive measurements. The model was applied to dense stands of two monocotyledonous species: rice (Oryza sativa L.) and pearl millet (Pennisetum americanum (L.) K. Schum.). The rates of canopy photosynthesis thus calculated were compared to those obtained with a more elaborate reference model. The differences between the values obtained with the two models were small. The present photosynthesis model can, therefore, be considered to be a suitable alternative for the more elaborate model. It was further discussed that, since the model is based on purely non‐destructive measurements, it will be particularly useful in cases where it is required to estimate canopy photosynthesis at regular intervals over a length of time or in stands of vegetation that cover large areas of land.

Plant and Infaunal Communities Associated with a Created Marsh

Destruction of tidal wetlands has led to a growing interest in the restoration and creation of new wetland habitat. However, while natural stands of vegetation have been successfully duplicated, less is understood about the establishment of faunal communities in created or restored tidal marshes. Infauna, which may form an important link between detrital production and commercially important finfish and decapods, have received limited attention in vegetated marsh habitats. We examined the infauna, changes in vegetation composition, and selected physical parameters in created marshes of different ages. Infauna were sampled using standard core sampling techniques. Vegetation composition and changes in relative abundance were observed using plot-point techniques. Vegetation plots indicated ongoing replacement ofSpartina alterniflora bySchoenoplectus robustus, a pattern supported by comparisons of vegetation at one of the sites to that reported in a previous study. Infauna exhibited significant differences between sites of different ages, with the intermediate-age site having intermediate densities for several taxa. These results suggest that both infauna and vegetation in created marshes undergo long-term change (ongoing after 10–20 yr), with both the plant and infaunal communities having qualitatively similar overall species composition to natural marsh areas.

The plant biodiversity of the Wadi Allaqi Biosphere Reserve (Egypt): impact of Lake Nasser on a desert wadi ecosystem

A data set comprising 95 stands of desert vegetation, collected from the Wadi Allaqi Biosphere Reserve and its environs within the South-Eastern Desert of Egypt during 1985–90, was analysed using multivariate procedures (two-way indicator species analysis: TWINSPAN; detrended correspondence analysis: DCA; canonical correspondence analysis: CCA), to produce a classification of plant communities in the area, and to examine the relationships of these plant communities to natural and man-induced features of the physical environment of the area (in particular, the influence of Lake Nasser, a major impoundment of the River Nile formed in 1964). The vegetation classification produced groupings broader, in both floristic and ecological terms, than those found by earlier studies of this area. In total 78 plant species were recorded from four phytogeographic elements. Four principal vegetation groups were identified, of which one is new to the area, and is the result of major environmental changes affecting the downstream part of the Wadi Allaqi system, following periodic flooding of the wadi by Lake Nasser during the past 30 years. This community was indicated by Tamarix nilotica. There was a strongly-zoned (downstream–upstream) pattern to the vegetation within this lower part of Wadi Allaqi, which appears to be a function of the probability of flooding by the lake. The remaining three vegetation groups occur higher in the wadi basin. Groundwater-dependence appeared to be important in defining a group indicated by Acacia tortilis, as well as the Tamarix nilotica group. The two remaining groups, characterized respectively by Acacia ehrenbergiana and Cullen plicatum, represent vegetation groups which are precipitation-dependent, and which tolerate drier conditions within the Allaqi system.

An Evaluation of Habitat Rehabilitation on Coastal Dune Forests in Northern KwaZulu‐Natal, South Africa

AbstractThe rehabilitation program conducted by Richards Bay Minerals (RBM) of areas exposed to opencast surface mining of sand dunes north of Richards Bay (28°43'S, 32°12'E) on the coast of northern KwaZulu‐Natal Province commenced 16 years before this study and has resulted in the development of a series of known‐aged stands of vegetation. By assuming that these spatially separated stands develop along a similar pathway over time, instantaneous sampling should reveal successional or other changes usually associated with aging and should provide an opportunity to evaluate the success of rehabilitation. We compare relative densities of pioneer and secondary species, species richness, and a similarity index of the herbaceous layer, tree, beetle, millipede, bird, and small‐mammal communities of rehabilitating areas of known age with those of 30‐year‐old unmined forests and unmined forests of unknown age adjacent to the rehabilitating area. Species richness for all but the mammalian taxa increased with increasing age of rehabilitating stands. For all taxa but the mammals and herbaceous layer, the unmined stands harbored more species than the mined rehabilitating stands. The relative densities of pioneer species of all the taxa decreased with an increase in the age of rehabilitating stands, whereas those of the secondary species increased with an increase in habitat age. Similarity between unmined stands and rehabilitating stands of different ages increased with increasing regeneration age of rehabilitating stands, suggesting that rehabilitating communities, in terms of species composition and relative densities, are developing towards the status of unmined communities. Rehabilitation based on RBM's management program of limited interference is occurring and may result in the reestablishment of a coastal dune forest ecosystem. But rehabilitation resulting from succession depends on the availability of species sources from which colonization can take place. In the Richards Bay mining operation the present mining path is laid out so that such refuges are present.

Does climate control the morphological fabric of freshwater carbonates? A comparative study of Holocene barrage tufas from Spain and Britain

Calcium carbonate production in most freshwater tufa systems is controlled by a combination of physico-chemical precipitation, and biomediation associated with procaryote-microphyte biofilms. Inorganic precipitation is dominant under turbulent flow regimes, whereas biomediation necessitates sluggish flow or static water. We show here that temperature is also likely to affect tufa formation rates and architecture, leading to the development of a clearly definable range of fabrics. Two contrasting models are proposed: Warm semi-arid tufas: well seen in the Ruidera Pools National Park, Albacete Province, Central Spain, where tufa barrages consist of vertical, narrow rimmed arcuate structures. Frequently these are bounded both upstream and downstream by deep lakes. Laterally accreting mammilate stromatolites dominate the upper two thirds of lake margin subaqueous overhangs, whereas conical growth-forms dominate shady basal parts of subaqueous overhangs. Dense reed stands grow in thin peats on top of the vertical lake margin walls. Resistivity survey and percussion augering show up to 20 m of earlier lake fill which is banded into dark and pale beds. The upper 10 m accumulated in 4600 years. There is little or no preservation of organic material within these deposits. Cool temperate tufas: typified by slowly accumulating barrage tufas at Caerwys (N. Wales) and Alport (N. Derbyshire, UK). Transverse barriers across valleys are dominated by arcuate buttress developments built up of downstream-facing tabular carbonate sheets. Pools upstream of the barriers are shallow, dominated by clotted lime mud and organic sapropels in their depocentres, and stromatolite-dominated (laminar to low domes, or oncoidal) facies in broad marginal zones. Marginal stands of semi-aquatic vegetation are rooted in thick peats but frequently are also encrusted around their exposed stems by oncoidal carbonate. Fabric preservation is good for the carbonate material, however, marginal peats rapidly oxidise and stem encrustations collapse to produce cylindrical oncoid beds. Depocentre sapropels are always preserved and contain important pollen records otherwise rare in carbonate regions. Carbonates in both models accumulate relatively rapidly. They have a moderate preservation potential within Late Cenozoic terrestrial successions. The distinctly different characteristics of their preserved fabrics should allow recognition of two contrasting “climatic” models for fluvial barrage tufas in ancient deposits.

Testing the Woodcock-Harward image segmentation algorithm in an area of southern California chaparral and woodland vegetation

Abstract Vegetation maps were produced by applying a region-growing segmentation algorithm to Landsat Thematic Mapper (TM) data, and labelling the resulting segments or map polygons by overlay of a per-pixel classification and applying a plurality rule. Thus, each segment was assigned a vegetation class label based on the most frequently occurring pixels in the segment. The segmentation improved overall map accuracies by an average of 10 per cent relative to the underlying per-pixel classification for three subimages within a southern California montane watershed based on a comparison with photointerpreted maps. While it was hypothesized that including transformed slope aspect and image texture as input to the segmentation would improve map accuracy by creating segments corresponding more closely to vegetation stands, our results did not support these hypotheses. Further, performing the segmentation on principal components bands, or a vegetation index, did not improve results over the segmentation based o...

Measurement of sap flow in plant stems

Transpiration rates for whole plants, individual branches or tillers can be determined by techniques which measure the rate at which sap ascends stems. All of these methods use heat as a tracer for sap movement, but they are fundamentally different in their operating principles. Two methods commonly employed, the stem heat balance and trunk sector heat balance methods, use the heat balance principle; the stem is heated electrically and the heat balance is solved for the amount of heat taken up by the moving sap stream, which is then used to calculate the mass flow of sap in the stem. In the heat-pulse method, rather than using continuous heating, short pulses of heat are applied and the mass flow of sap is determined from the velocity of the heat pulses moving along the stem. In addition, rates of sap flow can be determined empirically, using the thermal dissipation technique, from the temperature of sapwood near a continuously-powered heater implanted in the stem. Users must understand the theory underlying each of these methods, so that they can select the method most appropriate to their application and take precautions against potential sources of error. When attempting to estimate transpiration by stands of vegetation from measurements of sap flow in individual plants, users must also select an appropriate sampling strategy and scaling method.

Analysis of woody vegetation of Corbett National Park, India

The paper presents a detailed analysis of woody forest vegetation of Corbett National Park, at the foothills of Garhwal and Kumaun Himalaya. Twenty nine stands of tropical forest vegetation were studied. The vegetation consists of nine community types. Tree density was higher in Shorea robusta dominated communities and lowest in the Anogeissus latifolia-Acacia catechu community. Total tree basal cover was maximum in Shorea robusta dominated communities. Sapling and seedling regeneration was poor in Shorea robusta communities. Mallotus philippensis, Syzygium cumini and Diospyros tomentosa showed good regeneration both in sapling and seedling layers across the communities. Sapling and seedling species diversities showed negative relation with total tree basal cover. Most of the dominant tree species exhibited significant positive relationship between tree height and circumference at breast height in all the communities.

A reinterpretation of stomatal responses to humidity

ABSTRACTThe stomatal conductance (g) for single leaves and the equivalent canopy conductance for stands of vegetation are often represented in models as empirical functions of saturation vapour pressure deficit or relative humidity. The mechanistic basis of this dependence is very weak. A reanalysis of 52 sets of measurements on 16 species supports the conclusion of Mott & Parkhurst (1991, Plant, Cell and Environment 14, 509–515) that stomata respond to the rate of transpiration (E) rather than to humidity per se. In general, ∂g/∂E is negative and constant so that the relation between g and E can be defined by two parameters: a maximum conductance gm obtained by extrapolation to zero transpiration, and a maximum rate of transpiration Em obtained by extrapolation to zero conductance. Both parameters are shown to be functions of temperature, CO2 concentration, and soil water content. Exceptionally, transpiration rate and conductance may decrease together in very dry air, possibly because of patchy closure of stomata.

Nutrient concentrations in mire vegetation as a measure of nutrient limitation in mire ecosystems

Abstract. The above‐ground standing crop and nutrient concentrations in plant material were examined in 45 stands of mire vegetation in the Biebrza peatland, Poland. The stands included flood‐plains, rich fens, transitional fens and bogs. The pattern in nutrient concentrations in the above‐ground plant material resembled the pattern in nutrient concentrations in peatwater and peat which had been investigated in an earlier study. Concentrations of N were quite uniform along the gradient. P‐concentrations were highest in the transitional fen. Critical nutrient concentrations were defined on the basis of a review of nutrient concentrations in plant material from peatlands in which a fertilization experiment had been carried out. Defined critical values for phanerogams were: 13‐14 and 0.7 mg/g dry wt for N and P respectively. Concentrations lower than these values indicate deficiency. P/N ratios ≥ 0.07 indicate N‐deficiency and P/N ratios ≤ 0.04 — 0.05 indicate P‐deficiency. According to these values the Biebrza fens and bogs appear to be primarily deficient in N. The growth of the flood‐plain vegetation does not appear to be restricted by nutrients.

Pseudo-wavelet analysis of turbulence patterns in three vegetation layers

Ramp patterns in scalar traces such as temperature are the signature of coherent structures. A pseudo-wavelet analysis technique was developed in which ideal saw-tooth patterns of varying size were used as basis functions and fitted to temperature and velocity data. Data recorded from three very different vegetation stands were examined in this study. It was found that the most probable structure duration for the forest canopy was in the range 35–40 s, for the orchard canopy it was 20–25 s and for the maize it was 15–20 s. When expressed in non-dimensional form, the structure duration probability distribution for the maize canopy was about a decade larger than for the forest canopy, with the orchard canopy intermediate. The mean eddy duration versus wind shear relation falls on a narrow band for all three canopies, indicating that wind shear at the canopy top is the determining factor for the scale of the coherent eddies. The inverse of duration and intermittency of coherent structures exhibits a tendency of independence from wind shear at higher wind shear values. Coherent structures transport heat in a more efficient way than do smaller scale, less coherent motions. In all the canopies, the heat flux fractions associated with coherent structures are at least 10% higher than the corresponding time fraction.

Analysis of bank erosion on the Merced River, Yosemite Valley, Yosemite National Park, California, USA

Channel changes from 1919 to 1989 were documented in two study reaches of the Merced River in Yosemite National Park through a review of historical photographs and documents and a comparison of survey data. Bank erosion was prevalent and channel width increased an average of 27% in the upstream reach, where human use was concentrated. Here, trampling of the banks and riparian vegetation was common, and banks eroded on straight stretches as frequently as on meander bends. Six bridges in the upper reach constrict the channel by an average of 38% of the original width, causing severe erosion. In the downstream control reach, where human use was minimal, channel widths both decreased and increased, with a mean increase of only 4% since 1919. Bank erosion in the control reach occurred primarily on meander bends. The control reach also had denser stands of riparian vegetation and a higher frequency of large woody debris in channels. There is only one bridge in the lower reach, located at the downstream end. Since 1919, bank erosion in the impacted upstream reach contributed a significant amount of sediment (74,800 tonnes, equivalent to 2.0 t/km2/yr) to the river. An analysis of 75 years of precipitation and hydrologic records showed no trends responsible for bank erosion in the upper reach. Sediment input to the upper reach has not changed significantly during the study period. Floodplain soils are sandy, with low cohesion and are easily detached by lateral erosion. The degree of channel widening was positively correlated with the percentage of bare ground on the streambanks and low bank stability ratings. Low bank stability ratings were, in turn, strongly associated with high human use areas. Channel widening and bank erosion in the upper reach were due primarily to destruction of riparian vegetation by human trampling and the effect of bridge constrictions on high flow, and secondarily to poorly installed channel revetments. Several specific recommendations for river restoration were provided to park management.

Forest reconstruction as ecological engineering

Land restoration involves reconstruction of the native biota in a sustainable form. If reconstruction involves deliberate manipulation of biological organisms and the physical-chemical environment to achieve specific human goals, it qualifies as ecological engineering. Restoration which uses natural processes to achieve endpoints which are unpredictable but can be accepted because they are “natural” is not ecological engineering. In Japan a system of forest reconstruction has been developed which is based on knowledge of the potential vegetation of a site, knowledge of the methods of germination and growth of the species which compose the mature vegetation and a method of site preparation and planting. This ecological engineering approach has been used on 285 sites, in a variety of habitats, to form dense stands of vegetation to hide industrial complexes, control visual, noise and chemical pollution, stabilize soil and beaches and provide urban green space. The technique has also been used to restore tropical rain forest.