Stand-off Pad Research Articles

Comparative environmental impacts of intensive all-grass and maize silage-supplemented dairy farm systems: a review

Abstract New Zealand dairy farmers are lifting stocking rates and increasing available feed through nitrogen (N) fertiliser applications to pasture, growing maize for silage and other supplementary crops for silage or grazing on-farm, and/or procuring feed supplements off-farm. This has raised concerns about the possibility of increased risk of nutrient losses to waterways and the atmosphere. This paper reviews NZ and overseas data on the integration of maize silage into dairy systems. Maize silage is a low protein forage which helps optimise animal protein intake and reduces N loss. Maize silage-supplemented dairy farms leached more nitrogen per hectare but less per kg milksolids (MS) than intensive all-grass systems. Feeding maize silage on a feedpad and spreading the resulting effluent uniformly over the farm further reduces N leaching. In the Resource Efficient Dairying (RED) trial, total emissions of nitrous oxide (N2O, a potent greenhouse gas) for the maize-supplemented farmlet was 14% lower on a per hectare basis and 22% lower on a kg MS basis than the all-grass system when both received 170 kg N/ha as urea. The increases in maize dry matter production in response to incremental additions of N and water, where production is constrained by these inputs, can be 2-3 times greater than that for pasture. Using a feed and stand-off pad and managing maize growing through minimising tillage effects, determining soil N status at planting and timing N applications appropriately further reduce the environmental impact of maize silage-based dairy systems. Keywords: all-grass, environment, greenhouse gases, intensive dairy systems, maize silage, nitrates

Control of pollutants using stand-off pads containing different natural materials

Farmers are increasingly using management systems such as moving cows out of paddocks onto stand-off pads to protect wet soils from damage during winter. Studies were carried out to investigate nutrient and faecal bacterial retention or loss from stand-off pad materials. A preliminary laboratory study found that a range of natural materials, including crushed pine bark, wood chips, zeolite and soil can retain between 66% and 76% of applied cows' excreta nitrogen (N). Zeolite was found to be particularly good at reducing ammonia (NH3) volatilisation losses from the columns. A field-scale standoff pad study at a Waikato dairy farm, in the winter season of 2005, indicated that carbon (C)-rich materials including both bark and sawdust can be used as standoff pad materials with effective retention of N and faecal bacteria. Both bark and sawdust pads retained about 60% of deposited excreta N. Substantially more Escherichia coli were recovered in the drainage from the bark pad (total yield 3.1 x 1011 E. coli) than from the sawdust pad (total yield 7.5 x 109 E. coli) demonstrating that sawdust was more effective than bark in retaining these faecal bacteria. Keywords: stand-off pads, winter management, dairy, nitrogen, faecal bacteria, natural materials

Standoff holder and standoff pad for ultrasound probe

An accommodative standoff holder 10 which can be used for both diagnostic and therapeutic ultrasound is disclosed. The described standoff holder 10 has the ability to be mounted on and utilized with transducers 20 of different sizes and shapes. The standoff holder 10 includes a gel insert 26 which is removable and self adjusting assuring contact between a human body, an animal, or other object and the acoustic window 22 of a transducer 22. Further, a gel insert 26 and method of making gel inserts 26 from a gel pad 24 is described.

Sonographic evaluation of subacromial space

Goal of the study. The purpose of this study is to compare the accuracy of sonographic to radiographic measurements of subacromial space, and verify its variations in relation to acromial morphology, age, sex and rotator cuff pathologies. Materials and methods. As a result, we have compared a radiographic examination to sonographic examination, each measuring the subacromial space in 200 random shoulders, with a personal method. The sonographic examination was performed by using a HDI 5000 ultrasound scanner Sono-CT with 7.5 MHz linear array transducer. No stand-off pad was utilized. Results. The statistical analysis of the data derived from the two measurements was not sufficient to conclude that the two techniques are different ( p>0.8). They also correspond with the radiographic morphology of the acromion. The size of subacromial space was related to the acromial morphology, female gender, and rotator cuff pathology, however, it was not related to age. Discussion and conclusions. Our results clearly show that sonographic measurements are very close to those obtained by X-ray ( p>0.8). The Bland–Altman analysis showed that for all groups, the were small enough to give us confidence that the sonographic technique may be used in place of the radiographic one for clinical purposes. One-way ANOVA showed that sonographic measurements were statistically different among the four groups ( p<0.05). The sonography demonstrated precision, accuracy and carefulness in the measurement of the subacromial space.

Evaluation of two potential on-farm measures for reducing greenhouse gas emissions from an average dairy farm on the West Coast of the South Island of New Zealand

Agriculture contributes about 60% of New Zealand's total greenhouse gas emissions. Management practices for reducing these emissions will be required to meet our future international commitments. This paper presents estimates of two practical on-farm measures for reducing total greenhouse gas emissions from an average dairy farm on the West Coast of the South Island of New Zealand: 1) the incorporation of cereal silage into the diet, and 2) the strategic use of a stand-off pad in winter. Total calculated greenhouse gas emissions were reduced by about 14% if fertiliser N-boosted pasture was replaced with bought-in cereal silage grown off-farm. The estimated reduction in emissions was due to reductions in nitrous oxide and carbon dioxide emissions, whereas methane emissions were not significantly affected by this management practice. Reduced methane emissions required an increase in per animal production and a corresponding decrease in stocking rate. The use of a stand-off pad during winter did not significantly affect total greenhouse gas emissions using current inventory calculations. However, recent research suggests that it may reduce emissions by 3 to 8%, when accounting for the seasonal variation in N2O emissions and reduced fertiliser N requirements due to reduced pasture damage. A preliminary assessment of the economic implications of the cereal silage option suggested the cost of using cereal silage is likely to be higher than any savings that could be accrued from carbon credits obtained from reducing greenhouse gas emissions. However, the costs associated with building and using a stand-off pad are likely to be off-set against a potential increase in pasture production, and carbon credits obtained from a reduction in greenhouse gas emission would represent a net cost saving. Keywords: carbon dioxide, cereal silage, dairying, methane, mitigation options, nitrous oxide, stand-off pad

Intraoperative US staging of T in gastric cancer: final results of a blind prospective study.

In order to improve the accuracy in the assessment of depth of tumor invasion, we performed an ultrasound examination of the resected specimen intraoperatively just after removal by the surgeon (Intraoperative Ultrasonography (IUS). This prospective blind study reports the results obtained with the IUS in the staging of T in a group of 281 patients who underwent curative gastrectomy for gastric cancer. After the removal by the surgeon, the portion of the stomach harboring the tumor was submitted to ultrasonography with a linear 7.5 Mhz probe. An echo-free standoff pad was placed between the probe and the organ; a second echo-free standoff pad was interposed between the stomach and the support surface. The diagnosis of depth of invasion was based on the degree of disruption of the five-layer sonographic structure of the gastric wall. The IUS staging of T corresponded to the pathological diagnosis in 256 out of 281 cases (overall accuracy 91.1%). The sensitivity in the different classes of T was, respectively, 91.2 in T1m cases, 83.3 in the T1sm cases, 89.6 in the T2 cases, and 93.5% in the T3 cases. The IUS on the resected specimen has a high degree of accuracy in the assessment of depth of tumor invasion and seems to be an important advance in the clinical staging of gastric cancer.

Sonographic Evaluation of Extensor Tenosynovitis

This is a case report of tenosynovitis of the second and third extensor tendon compartments of the wrist. The report is unique in that tenosynovitis was evaluated with a combination of gray-scale sonographic images with and without an acoustic standoff pad, real-time examination, and color and spectral Doppler interrogation. Tenosynovitis is a nonspecific, inflammatory process affecting the tendon sheath and may occur as a result of infection, trauma, or inflammatory arthropathy such as rheumatoid arthritis. This case most likely represents an inflammatory type of extensor tenosynovitis. Symptoms, sonographic findings, and treatment options are briefly discussed.

Sonography of the Patellar Tendon and Adjacent Structures in Pediatric and Adult Patients

1535 he patellar tendon and its adjacent soft tissue and bony structures may be affected by a number of conditions, most of which are thought to be related to trauma. The patellar tendon is readily seen on sonography because of its superficial location. Patellar tendon abnormalities have been given a number of different labels with a confusing overlap in terminology. This pictorial essay illustrates both normal and abnormal appearances of the patellar tendon on sonography and describes the more common conditions affecting it. Sonographic Technique The patellar tendon is readily examined on sonography with high-frequency linear array transducers. Transducers up to 20 MHz are now available and may be desirable to achieve high spatial resolution. However, acoustic penetration may be limited, and these transducers are expensive and not widely available. In practice, excellent patellar tendon sonography can be performed with 7to 10-MHz transducers. The knee is examined in a flexed or semiflexed position, and comparison may be made with the contralateral side. Longitudinal and transverse images of the tendon are obtained with electronic focusing at the appropriate depth [1]. An acoustic standoff pad can be used to help visualize more superficial structures in greater detail and can also facilitate direct palpation during real-time scanning. Power Doppler sonography can be used to examine for increased tissue blood flow associated with patellar tendon abnormality [2].

The Normal Ultrasonographic Appearance of Ovine Joints, and the Uses of Arthrosonography in the Evaluation of Chronic Ovine Joint Disease

The ultrasonographic anatomy of the elbow, carpal, fetlock and stifle joints of six clinically normal sheep was determined using a 7.5 MHz linear transducer with stand-off pad. Examination of the joints was performed both prior to and after experimental distension of the joint capsule in four cadavers with up to 10 mL isotonic saline. This distension enabled the joint capsule to be imaged ultrasonographically as a 2 mm thick echogenic line. Isolation of the joint at necropsy enabled definitive identification of the structures seen ultrasonographically. Arthrosonography of five sheep with chronic arthritis/synovitis affecting one or more joints was performed, and the gross pathological changes examined at necropsy. The gross thickening of the joint capsule was visible ultrasonographically as a hyperechoic band up to 20 mm thick. Ultrasonography was a valuable diagnostic aid in the evaluation of chronic ovine joint disease, and has potential value in the prognosis for chronic ovine arthritis/synovitis.

Ultrasonographic imaging of canine mammary tumours

The efficiency and reliability of an ultrasonographic technique for evaluating mammary neoplasms was tested in 19 female dogs with palpable tumours. A 7.5 MHz linear-array ultrasound transducer was used, with...

DEVELOPMENT OF NONINVASIVE VELOCITY FLOW VIDEO URODYNAMICS USING DOPPLER SONOGRAPHY. PART I: EXPERIMENTAL URETHRA

Purpose We believed that a totally noninvasive video urodynamic system could be invented based on the concept of Doppler ultrasonography. To develop this system we measured flow velocity in an experimental urethra using 4 materials, including natural urine. Materials and Methods A cellulose tube was inserted into a standoff pad as an experimental urethra. Degassed water, distilled water, urine and liposome (multi-lamellar particles) solution comprised the 4 materials used to compare signal intensity and flow velocity at various flow rates. The flow rate from the tube was measured with a uroflowmeter. The Doppler image and digital uroflow signal data were processed by a computer. Results Doppler signals and flow velocity curves could be sufficiently obtained using distilled water, urine and liposome solution, while degassed water showed no Doppler signals at any flow rate. Minimum flow rate at which clear Doppler signals were continuously detected from the angle in the frontal plane was greater than 3.0 ml. per second for distilled water, greater than 1.5 for urine and greater than 0.3 for liposome solution. Maximum flow velocities were identical in these 3 materials at a flow rate of greater than 2.0 ml. per second. The functional cross-sectional area of the tube showed a constant value irrelevant to the initial flow rate. Conclusions Flow velocity could be measured by Doppler ultrasound above a certain minimal flow rate. Dissolved gasses have an important role in creating Doppler signals. Flow velocity, velocity related parameters and functional cross-sectional area can diagnose and localize the area of bladder outlet obstruction. Liposome solution may be helpful in detecting velocity in low flow states in future systems.

Ultrasound characteristics of subdermally implanted Implanon ™ contraceptive rods

This study was designed to define sonographic characteristics and the optimal sonographic technique for localization of the single rod Implanon ™ system. Diagnostic ultrasonography was performed in eight women who had the Implanon rod implanted in the medial aspect of the upper arm. All implants were scanned in the longitudinal and transverse direction using 3.5 MHz, 5 MHz, and 7.5 MHz linear array transducers. Scanning was performed both directly against the skin and with 2 and 4 cm Kiteco ™ ultrasound stand-off pads. Each image obtained was evaluated for detectability of the Implanon rod and the grade of acoustic shadowing produced by the Implanon rod by two independent observers. Discrepancies in evaluation were adjudicated by a third observer. The Implanon rod implant was not directly identified using the transducer and standoff pad combinations. Implanon rods were indirectly identified as a result of the posterior acoustic shadow cast by the Implanon. Best demonstration was achieved with the 5 or 7.5 MHz transducer and a 2 cm stand-off pad in the transverse direction. Appropriate ultrasonographic technique and familiarity with posterior acoustic shadowing patterns generated by the implant provide a noninvasive method for localization of nonpalpable, single rod implants prior to removal.

Ultrasonographic appearance of the soft tissue structures cranial to the tibia in the horse

The use of diagnostic ultrasound for the identification of soft tissue injuries has become widely accepted in equine practice. Although references exist in the literature describing the injured peroneus tertius 3 minimal information is present regarding the normal ultrasonographic appearance of this and the associated structures. This paper will attempt to present the ultrasonographic appearance of the soft tissue structures on the cranial surface of the tibia and the dorsal surface of the tarsus; those structures involved in flexing the hock when the stifle is flexed, in the non-diseased state. In an attempt to be consistent when doing a sonographic exam, we find it imperative to establish a reference point. This helps us when we are trying to compare the injured leg with normal or when the horse is presented for re-exam. We found the medial malleolus of the tibia to be a useful anatomical landmark when scanning in this area. All sonograms were measured in cm at a distance proximal and distal to the medial malleolus. The opposing limb is also scanned for comparison when examining an animal for the first time. The left hind leg of a 16.2 hh Thoroughbred racehorse was used for the prints after examining multiple animals and then comparing the scans with both fresh dissections and freeze-dried sections of the limb. The area between the stifle and mid metatarsus on the cranial/anterior surface of the left hind leg was clipped and shaved in the routine manner 1 and prints were made from images on an ATL 4600 sector scanner. All sonograms were made using the 7.5MHz probe except for the most proximal which were done with the 5.0MHz probe due to the muscle depth. We also found the use of a standoff pad advantageous.

The Use of a Stand-of Device in High Pulse Repetition Frequeny Doppler Echocardiography

An interesting case of severe mitral stenosis in which Doppler echocardiographic evaluation was greatly enhanced by use of a stand-off pad is discussed. When employing high pulse repetition frequency (HPRF) Doppler, it may be difficult to place the sample volume at the area of interest while remaining in HPRF mode, because it is not always clear that there is a certain minimum sample volume depth below which a system will not operate in HPRF. This and other related technical constraints vary from machine to machine. This case illustrates that sample volumes can be manipulated by using a stand-off pad, thereby making use of HPRF possible. The specifications of the HPRF mode on the Acuson 128XP (Acuson, Mountain View, CA) are examined in detail, and possible applications of this technique in similar difficult situations that may arise in clinical practice are discussed.

The cross-sectional areas of normal equine digital flexor tendons determined ultrasonographically.

Fifty-two animals, comprising 22 Irish Draught crosses (Group A), 15 Thoroughbreds (Group B) and 15 ponies (Group C) were examined ultrasonographically using a 7.5 mHz linear array probe and stand-off pad. All animals were free of tendon disease as determined from clinical and ultrasonographical examination. The superficial (SDFT) and deep (DDFT) digital flexor tendons were scanned at 7 transverse (axial) levels between the carpus and metacarpophalangeal joint. Each transverse image was digitised using a commercially available frame grabber and the cross-sectional areas of each tendon at each level measured using a dedicated software application. Excellent accuracy (averaging less than 5%) was demonstrated between the ultrasound generated areas and those measured from the tendons post mortem in 12 limbs. The mean, s.d. and tolerance intervals of both SDFT and DDFT cross-sectional areas at each level were determined for each group of horses. There was no statistically significant difference between Groups A and B and these 2 groups were, therefore, combined for further analysis. The cross-sectional areas of both tendons were statistically smaller for Group C when compared to Groups A and B. The ratio of SDFT to DDFT cross-sectional areas was calculated for each level and this demonstrated less variation between groups. The difference in measurements between limbs of the same horse was analysed. The mean differences for all groups were 9.13 mm2 for the SDFT and 11.64 mm2 for the DDFT. Upper limits (95% of the population) were 22.67 mm2 (SDFT) and 29.22 mm2 (DDFT).(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)

The value of in vitro ultrasonography in the intraoperative staging of gastric cancer

The correct staging is of crucial importance in the choice of surgical treatment in patients affected by stomach carcinoma. In an attempt to achieve a greater accuracy in the diagnosis of depth of tumor invasion, we propose to perform ultrasonography of the gastric wall during surgery (in vitro ultrasonography). Immediately after removal by the surgeon, the portion of the stomach containing the tumor is submitted to ultrasonography with a linear 7.5-MHz probe. To obtain good ultrasonographic images it was necessary to interpose an echo-free standoff pad between the probe and the gastric wall and between the latter and support surface. On completion of ultrasonography, the surgical specimen was sent to the pathologist, who was unaware of the diagnosis formulated on the basis of in vitro ultrasonography (VUS). The VUS diagnosis of T corresponded to the pathological diagnosis in 87/93 cases (93.5% accuracy). In the early cancers the diagnosis was correct in 24/28 cases (85.7%); in the advanced cancers the diagnosis was correct in 63/65 cases (96.9%). In comparison with the results of the other preoperative and intraoperative techniques the accuracy of in vitro ultrasonography in diagnosing the depth of tumor invasion was clearly superior. We feel that VUS may become a basic instrument in T staging and an aid to the surgeon in deciding the extent of the resection and of lymphadenectomy in patients with gastric cancer.

Visualization of implantable defibrillator patches by two‐dimensional echocardiography

Implantable cardioverter defibrillators are being used with increasing frequency for the management of life-threatening ventricular arrhythmias. In order to determine whether the titanium mesh of the defibrillator patch causes ultrasonographic acoustical interference, 30 patients underwent prospective serial echocardiographic examination. In addition, studies were reviewed to determine whether the defibrillator patches could be visualized with standard two-dimensional echocardiography. In no patient did the anterior patch produce acoustical interference, and, unless specific measures were utilized (such as a standoff pad, a zoom feature, or a 5-MHz transducer), the patches were rarely visualized.

Do I need a standoff pad when my ultrasound scanner has variable focusing capability?

Do I need a standoff pad when my ultrasound scanner has variable focusing capability?

Ultrasonographic appearance of the ovaries of dogs during the follicular and luteal phases of the estrous cycle

Summary Ultrasonography of the ovaries of 10 bitches was performed daily, using a 7.5-Mhz transducer with a built-in stand-off pad, from the onset of proestrus until the onset of metestrus. Ovarian size, shape, location, echogenicity, follicular development, and apparent ovulation were monitored. Blood samples were collected twice daily for luteinizing hormone determination and daily for progesterone determination. Vaginal smears were made daily for cytologic evaluation. Ultrasonograms were evaluated independent of hormonal and cytologic data, and the day of ovulation was noted. Initially, the ovaries were uniform and had an echogenicity that was equal to or slightly greater than that of the renal cortex. Follicles appeared as focal hypoechoic to anechoic rounded structures. Ovaries were easier to identify as follicular development progressed. Ovarian size increased with time. Apparent ovulation was characterized by a decrease in number of follicles seen from 1 day to the next, but 1 or more follicles remained in at least 1 ovary of 7 of 10 bitches. The ovaries had an oval shape that became rounded after ovulation. At some time after ovulation, all bitches had cystic (anechoic) structures indistinguishable from follicles. These structures increased in echogenicity and decreased in size with time and may have been follicles that did not ovulate, corpora hemorrhagica, fluid-filled corpora lutea, or cyctic luteinized follicles. Time of ovulation determined by ultrasonography paralleled that predicted on the basis of hormonal data in 9 of 10 bitches and with cytologic findings in all bitches.

ULTRASOUND SCANNING OF SUPERFICIAL STRUCTURES USING AN ULTRASOUND STANDOFF PAD

Complete ultrasonographic visualization of superficial structures is facilitated by using a commercially available ultrasound standoff pad. Normally, scanning of superficial structures is difficult, even when using high‐frequency transducers. A major problem is the generation of intense echoes in the most superficial zone of the near field due to transducer reverberations. The ultrasound standoff pad decreases or prevents echo reverberations in the area of interest by placing it in the focal zone of the transducer. The standoff pad has been used to evaluate the flexor tendons of the equine metacarpus and metatarsus, canine testicle, canine lymph node, and other organs in cats and small dogs. Examples of this technique are presented.