Biodiesel Standards Research Articles

ANALISIS SIFAT FISIKA DAN SIFAT KIMIA GEL BIODIESEL DARI MINYAK BIJI PALEM PUTRI (Adonidia merrillii)

Biodiesel is an alkyl ester of long-chain fatty acids, the most common of which are methyl esters or ethyl esters. The manufacturing process involves esterification and transesterification. Traditional sources of biodiesel raw materials such as palm oil, soybeans, and jatropha have been widely studied. The princess palm, widely known as an ornamental plant, produces fruit containing seeds with quite high oil potential. This research aims to produce biodiesel and determine the physical and chemical properties from putri palm seeds. This research is experimental research with a quantitative descriptive approach. Putri palm seed oil is extracted using the soxhletation method with n-hexane solvent. The oil was then esterified using methanol with a catalyst of 1% sulfuric acid with a mole ratio of oil and methanol of 1:8 at a temperature of 60°C for 3 hours. The esterified oil is then transesterified using methanol and KOH with a methanol to oil ratio of 1:20 with KOH of 0.8% for 2 hours at a temperature of 60°C. This research has succeeded in making biodiesel from putri palm seeds. The biodiesel produced is in the form of a gel referred to as biodiesel gel with a yellowish brown color with a density of 1,236 gr/ml and a pour point of 36-38°C. The FFA/ALB value is 0.587%, the acid number is 1.177 mg KOH/g, the IOD number is 34.514 (g-I2/100 g), the saponification number is 63.19 mg KOH/g, the heating value is 48.088 MJ/Kg, and the cetane number 38,620. The IOD number, saponification number, and heating value meet the SNI standards for liquid biodiesel in general, while the cetane number and ALB value are close to SNI standards.

Comparative assessment for biodiesel production from low-cost feedstocks of third oil generation

Biodiesel offers a sustainable fossil fuel alternative, highlighting the importance of third-generation feedstocks like macroalgae and waste frying oils (WFO) from palm, sunflower, and corn. This study investigates their physicochemical properties using different feedstocks towards biodiesel standard specifications. The feedstocks were synthesised through transesterification process at operating parameters molar ratio of methanol to oil (3:1–12:1), catalyst concentration (0.5–3 wt %), reaction time (60–240 min), and reaction temperature (55–75 °C). The fatty acid compositions were analysed using GC-Fid shows Azolla filiculoides (54.0 %), Ulva lactuca (56.0 %), WFO palm (56.5 %), WFO sunflower (85.7 %) and WFO corn (82.7 %) biodiesels dominated by unsaturated fatty acids have good physicochemical properties such as densities (872–883 kg/m3), kinematic viscosities (3.52–5.3 mm2/s), cloud points (10 °C to −10 °C), pour points (8 °C to −12 °C), cetane numbers (44.4–57.9), heating values (38.60–41.68 MJ/kg), and iodine values (60.94–129.15 g I2/100 g) meet the specification of biodiesel standards. This study reveals fatty acid profiles significantly impact the physicochemical properties of biodiesel. Among all feedstocks, Azolla filiculoides demonstrating particularly promising characteristics for biodiesel production. These findings advocate for the increased exploration of third-generation feedstocks in the quest for sustainable biodiesel production processes.

Utilization of opium poppy seed oil for biodiesel production: A parametric characterization and statistical optimization

Consuming traditional petroleum-derived diesel fuel has long been associated with issues such as the depletion of natural energy resources. To solve these challenges, an alternate source like as biodiesel is an appealing option. Seed oils have long been recognized as an abundant and diverse source of biodiesel. In this study, poppy seed oil from the poppy (Papaver somniferum) was investigated for biodiesel production. Poppy seed biodiesel was generated and refined using acid-pretreated esterification with sulphuric acid prior to transesterification, as well as single-step alkaline catalyzed transesterification with methanol and potassium hydroxide. Finally, the percentage yield was compared. Using Statistica, the Box-Behnken design was applied to optimize process variables like time, temperature, catalyst concentration, and methanol-oil ratio to produce maximum yield. The relationship of process variables was also shown with the help of the Response Surface Methodology. A maximum yield of 94.87 % was obtained at optimized conditions, i.e., 90min reaction time, 60 °C of temperature, 0.25 mg of catalyst concentration, and 3v/v% alcohol-oil ratio. The fuel properties of biodiesel produced, such as acid value, moisture content, saponification value, iodine value, specific gravity, percentage of free fatty acids, refractive index, viscosity, boiling point, and peroxide value, were measured and compared with the American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) D6751 and European Standards (EN) 14214. Further results were studied and discussed using Fourier Transfer Infrared (FTIR) analysis, which showed maximum similarity of raw material to formed biodiesel. Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry (GC-MS) analysis was performed to identify and quantify various fatty acid methyl esters. The results obtained were in accordance with various international standards for biodiesel fuel. Thus, poppy seeds can be used to obtain biodiesel.

Methyl Ester Production from Rice Bran Oil and Methanol with Calcium Carbonate Catalysts Using Esterification Method

Rice bran oil is a type of oil with high nutritional value from rice bran. However, the free fatty acid content in it can increase by more than 60% with sufficient storage time. Free fatty acids contained in rice bran have the potential to be produced into biodiesel (methyl ester). This research aimed to determine the effect of methanol volume and esterification process time on biodiesel yield and to compare methyl ester yield to standard biodiesel. This research was conducted in two stages, namely rice bran oil extraction and esterification. In the extraction stage, rice bran was extracted with n-hexane for 3 hours at an operating temperature of 65oC. The esterification process was carried out by mixing rice bran oil, methanol with a certain volume (100, 125, 150, 175, 200 mL), and calcium carbonate catalyst as much as 1% of the amount of methanol. Esterification was carried out with time variations of 1; 1.5; 2; 2.5 and 3 hours. The results in the form of rice bran oil were analyzed for the value of the biodiesel yield. The result of rice bran oil was analyzed for initial free fatty acid value. Pure biodiesel product in the form of methyl ester was obtained through separation with glycerol as a by-product. The optimum methyl ester yield was 81.70% at 175 ml methanol volume for 3 hours. The methyl ester results are in accordance with SNI biodiesel for density and kinematic viscosity values.

Catalytic Potential of Singgora Roof Tiles in Transesterification for Sustainable Biodiesel

The study centred around the uitilization of Singgora roof tiles as a heterogeneous catalyst in the production of biodiesel via the transesterification process. The motivation behind this choice stems from the non-recyclable nature of Singgora roof tiles and their potential applicability in biodiesel synthesis. To enhance the catalytic properties, zinc oxide (ZnO) is incorporated using the wet impregnation technique during catalyst preparation. The catalyst was characterized by XRF and SEM-EDX. A two-step transesterification method is employed to mitigate the levels of free fatty acid (FFA) in waste cooking oil (WCO). The initial step involves treating the WCO with sulfuric acid (H2SO4) to reduce FFA. Subsequently, the Singgora roof tiles catalyst is utilized in the second step. A high yield of FAMEs, specifically 96.96%, was achieved under the optimal conditions, which included a methanol-to- oil ratio of 12:1, a catalyst concentration of 1 wt.%, a reaction temperature of 65 °C, and a reaction time of 2 hours. The quality of the biodiesel produced was analyzed according to biodiesel standards such as ASTM D6751, EN 14214, and AOCS, and it met all the required standards. The study demonstrates the potential of using Singgora roof tiles as a heterogeneous catalyst in biodiesel production, offering a promising approach to repurposing non-recyclable materials and advancing sustainable biodiesel production methods.

Synthesis of Ceiba pentandra biodiesel using ultrasound and infrared radiation: Comparison and fuel characterisation.

Abstract The continuous expending of the economy and population in modern society has caused an increase in energy usage. Currently, fossil fuels and renewable energy are used to generate energy, contributing to greenhouse gas emissions. A significant effort has been made globally to address the issue of rising emissions by boosting the usage of renewable energy. In comparison to fossil fuels, biodiesel has many benefits, including the ability to be produced from a wide range of feedstocks, the ability to be renewable, and the reduction of atmospheric pollution emissions. Besides, advanced technologies can help the biodiesel sector meet the energy demand while producing high-quality biodiesel. The Ceiba pentandra was used for biodiesel production using ultrasound-infrared applications in the present research work. The study aims to produce biodiesel for a better conversion rate and improve fuel properties. Comparisons were conducted using a combination of infrared ultrasound versus ultrasound irradiation. The results show that ultrasound produced the highest yield of 98.76% when the conditions were as follows: methanol/oil ratio: 60%, KOH: 1%, reaction time: 50 minutes. Yet, the addition of infrared on ultrasound has also produced a high conversion yield in a shorter time than ultrasound. A 98.42% biodiesel yield option when using infrared-ultrasound irradiation with conditions as follows: methanol/oil ratio: 60%, KOH: 1%, reaction time: 30 minutes. As both applications were examined, the ultrasound-infrared application was preferable in saving time and energy constraints for biodiesel production. The fuel properties were found to be equivalent to ASTM D6751 and EN 14214 biodiesel standards.

Enhancing waste-derived biodiesel yield using recyclable zinc sulfide nanocatalyst: Synthesis, characterization, and process optimization

With the increasing demand for sustainable and renewable energy sources, biodiesel has emerged as a promising alternative to conventional fossil fuels. This study presents a novel approach to enhancing Thevetia peruviana biodiesel (TPB) yield from plant waste by optimizing process variables using Zinc sulfide (ZnS) as a catalyst. Co-precipitation was utilized to synthesize the ZnS nanoparticles, followed by comprehensive characterization using SEM, XRD, EDAX, and FTIR. Response surface methodology was employed to determine optimal values for process parameters, specifically catalyst concentration (CC), oil-to-alcohol ratio (OAR), and process temperature (PT). The results demonstrate that the nanoparticle can be effectively reused over five successive cycles without significant loss of catalytic activity. The optimal condition identified was a CC of 107.7 ppm, OAR of 8.9:1, and PT of 94.6 °C, yielding a TPB of 92.5 %, which was validated through confirmation experiments. The yield of TPB using the nanocatalyst exhibited a 3.6 % increase compared to a typical chemical catalyst. ANOVA results revealed that CC had a 43.9 % influence on biodiesel yield, while OAR and PT had influences of 33.2 % and 22.9 %, respectively. Elemental analysis indicated that TPB biodiesel has a 10.9 times higher oxygen concentration compared to diesel fuel, with GC-MS analysis identifying linoleic acid as the predominant component. The elemental, FTIR, GC-MS, and physicochemical analysis of TPB were found to be comparable to the biodiesel standard. This comprehensive assessment suggests that TPB has the potential to serve as a viable alternative to conventional diesel fuel.

Hazardous waste management of novel non-edible Platycladus orientalis seed oil via recyclable yttria-based phyto-nanocatalyst: A practical approach towards sustainable bioenergy conversion

In current scenario of rising issues of economic crises, ecotoxicity and waste management, the search of novel, waste and non-food biomass for green energy production has become indispensable. This study is concerned with Platycladus orientalis, a novel feedstock with a seed oil concentration of 28 % (w/w), optimized via simulation-based response surface methodology (RSM) for biodiesel production. To enhance catalytic activity during transesterification, novel Yttria-based green metallic oxide, a phyto-nanocatalyst, was synthesized using Platycladus orientalis dried seed cones aqueous extract. The Yttria-based phytonanocatalyst was characterized using FTIR, XRD, SEM, and EDX that confirmed its structural and elemental composition with 12 nm nano-size and demonstrated the high catalytic efficiency. The optimal conditions for biodiesel synthesis were identified as methanol-to-oil ratio (7:1), catalyst concentration (0.14 wt%), reaction time (105 min), and reaction temperature (80 °C) with remarkable biodiesel yield (96 %). The reusability of the Yttria-based green nanoparticles was assessed over six reaction cycles. Methyl ester formation was validated through FTIR, GC–MS, and NMR analyses. The fuel properties were found to fall within the range recommended by the international biodiesel standards i.e. flash point of 90 °C, density of 0.614 kg/L, viscosity of 4.21 cSt, pour point of −8 °C, cloud point of −10 °C, total acid number of 0.124 mg KOH/g and sulfur content of 0.00002 wt%. With its prolific seed production and wide distribution, Platycladus orientalis is a highly recommendable species for sustainable and eco-friendly biodiesel production. This study contributes to the evolving field of green catalysis, offering a viable solution to environmental issues and waste management challenges in the biodiesel industry.

Performance characteristics of marine diatoms Cylindrotheca sp. and Trieres chinensis under nutrient limitation and their potency as feedstock for biodiesel production

Microalgae-derived biodiesel is commonly studied and recently gained attention as a possible substitute feedstock for production of biodiesel. In this study, the potential of marine diatoms, Cylindrotheca sp. (FPU 0031) and T. chinensis (FPU 0030), for production of biodiesel was evaluated by investigating the effect of nutrient limitation (100, 75, 50, and 25 % Roschin medium) on growth behavior response, lipid productivity, and FAME profiles of the diatom strains. The total lipid yield increased under nutrient-limited culture condition. When the concentration of the nutrient was restricted to 50 %, the average lipid yield of Cylindrotheca sp. and T. chinensis were 19.32 and 21.72 % with lipid productivity of 73.46 and 68.19 mg L−1 day−1, respectively. Nutrient limitation resulted in a decrease in biomass yield and an increase in the lipid yield of the diatom strains. The properties of biodiesel generated by the two diatoms were assessed based on FAME profiles using empirical equations. Results showed that Cylindrotheca sp. and T. chinensis conforms to the biodiesel standards specifications set by EN 14214 and ASTM D6751. The predicted properties of biodiesel observed for Cylindrotheca sp. and T. chinensis were both ideal, e.g. good cold filter plugging points (−6.94 °C and − 2.16 °C), cetane numbers (65.57 and 75.29), cloud points (1.81 °C and 7.75 °C), pour points (1.60 °C and − 4.86 °C), and low kinematic viscosities (2.89 and 2.16 mm2 s−1), respectively. Thus, suggesting the potential use of these diatoms as feedstock for producing biodiesel with high-grade fuel characteristics.

Synthesis of biofuel from Luffas cylindrical-Dennettia tripetala oil blend (BT40) using catalytic sweet corn stock acidified with iron (III) sulfate (Fe2(SO4)3)

In an attempt to model and optimize the biodiesel production from the binary oil blends, a BTO40 obtained from the mixture of Dennettia tripetala (DTO) and Luffas cylindrical (LCO) oilseeds was employed in a double-stage microwave-assisted batch process (DSMABP). The DTO40 was esterified with iron (III) sulfate (Fe2(SO4)3) and then transesterified with catalyst selectivity between calcined fermented sweet corn stock (CFCS) and calcined non-fermented sweet corn stock (CNFCS). Catalyst characterization was carried out using analyzers, while process modeling and optimization were carried out using statistical tools. The produced biodiesel qualities were evaluated, and the catalyst potential was tested by a catalyst reusability test. Results show that a BTO40 was suitable for maximum biodiesel yield of 98.92% (wt./wt.) with HHV of 43.84 MJ/kg, CN of 79.73, flash point of 120 °C, cloud point of -3 °C, pour point of -6 °C, cold filter plugging point of +2 °C, oxidative stability of 4.6 h, and carbon residue of 0.02% nm. The statistical modeling and optimization by RSMI-Optimal predicted a mean value of biodiesel to be 99.28% (wt./wt.), the ANNGA predicted a mean biodiesel yield of 99.78% (wt./wt.), and γGCFW predicted 99.82% (wt./wt.), respectively, at different variable conditions. These values were validated in triplicate, and the average means were obtained as 98.57% (wt./wt.), 99.69% (wt./wt.), and 99.71% (wt./wt.), respectively. Catalyst usability tests show DFSCS has high alkali potential as a base catalyst. The produced biodiesel properties are in total agreement with the recommended biodiesel standard. The study concluded that BTO40 treated with a 0.1 M Fe2(SO4)3 solution in a base-catalyzed calcined fermented sweet corn stock for biodiesel synthesis can be used as an alternative fuel.

Biodiesel production from microalgae oils: A critical review

The global energy demand is expected to rise due to improved living standards, population growth, and urbanization. It underscores the need to explore alternative energy sources. Biodiesel, derived from renewable feedstock, is considered a promising solution to meet future energy needs while addressing concerns about dwindling fossil fuel reserves and environmental issues. Microalgal oils are identified as third-generation feedstock for biofuels production due to their advantages over conventional edible crops and non-edible oils, which face limitations in availability and yield. Microalgal oils are particularly significant because edible oils serve as food sources, and non-edible oil resources have slow growth rate as well as less oil yields. For biodiesel derived from any feedstock, meeting specific physical and chemical properties to comply with biodiesel standards. Therefore, thoroughly examining the conversion process from microalgal oil to biodiesel is necessary. This study explores various aspects of microalgal oils as biodiesel feedstock, including different microalgal species and their oil content, technologies used for biodiesel production from microalgal oils and biomass, and biodiesel standards and characterization across other countries. Techno-economics and Life Cycle Assessment are applied in this study to evaluate the economic viability and environmental impact of microalgae-based processes, addressing challenges such as data availability, uncertainty, and stakeholder engagement. This review highlights a significant opportunity to produce biodiesel from microalgal feedstock, which could contribute to future biodiesel production and provide a sustainable alternative to conventional diesel fuels.

Kinetics and thermodynamic studies on biodiesel synthesis via Soxhlet extraction of Scenedesmus parvus algae oil

In recent times, there has been a notable surge in interest regarding the utilization of microalgae for biodiesel production through wastewater treatment. This can be attributed to the versatile nature of microalgae to thrive in various water systems, including wastewater systems, and their ability to show a high rate of photosynthesis. This research aims to assess the viability of utilizing Scenedesmus parvus microalgae, commonly used in the treatment of wastewater, as a potential source of oil feedstock for biofuel production. To extract oil from microalgae, a Soxhlet extraction technique was employed, using methanol for both extraction and separation processes. The extraction process was carried out under differing experimental conditions, including variable extraction temperatures (40–80 °C), extraction period (3–12 h), and algae to solvent ratios (S/L) (1:05–1:10). The microalgae exhibited a maximum oil yield of about 24% when subjected to the extraction conditions of an 8-hour extraction period, an extraction temperature of 70 °C, and a methanol to algae ratio of 1:10. The extraction process of algae oil using the Soxhlet method was analyzed for its thermodynamic and kinetic properties using a second-order equation and Eyring's theory, respectively. In this process, biodiesel was successfully produced with an efficiency of approximately 92.2 ± 0.8% through an alkaline transesterification reaction. This reaction was conducted at a temperature of 65 °C, using a catalyst concentration of 1 wt% (KOH), with the ratio of algae oil to methanol set at 1:9, for 3 h. The biodiesel obtained from microalgae in this research conformed to the global biodiesel standards, specifically ASTM D6751 and EN 14214. The findings emphasize the viability of Scenedesmus parvus microalgae as a valuable resource for biodiesel production.

Efficient production of biodiesel from palm fatty acid distillate using a novel hydrochar-based solid acid catalyst derived from palm leaf waste

To combat fuel shortages, pollution, and the exhaustion of natural oil resources, an environmentally friendly alternative to fossil fuels, such as biodiesel, is essential for meeting global transportation demands. A novel heterogeneous acid catalyst for production of biodiesel from low-cost, high free fatty acid feedstocks was synthesized in this study by activating and impregnating hydrochar from palm leaf (PL) waste with H3PO4 and H2SO4. Subsequently, the sulfonated catalyst was utilized for the esterification of palm fatty acid distillate (PFAD). FT-IR, XRD, FESEM, EDX, BET, TGA, and surface acidity methods were employed to characterize the acid catalyst. Using the one-variable-at-a-time (OVAT) technique, the optimized reaction conditions for esterification of PFAD using the hydrochar-based catalyst were 4 wt% catalyst loading, 353.15 K reaction temperature, 4 h reaction time, and 18:1 methanol: PFAD molar ratio. At these conditions, a maximum biodiesel yield of 93.56% was achieved. The catalyst exhibited excellent reusability and stability throughout five reaction cycles, maintaining biodiesel yields above 80% after each cycle. Analysis of the fuel properties revealed that the biodiesel derived from PFAD met the physiochemical criteria outlined in ASTM D6751, the American biodiesel standard. The kinetic study revealed that the esterification reaction followed pseudo-first-order kinetics with an activation energy (Ea) of 23.70 kJ/mol. Furthermore, the thermodynamic enthalpy (∆H*) and Gibbs' free energy (∆G*) of esterification were 20.9 and 33.41 kJ/mol, respectively, indicating that the reaction was an endothermic and non-spontaneous process.

Determination of Some Physicochemical Properties of Binary Biodiesel and Binary Biodiesel-Diesel Blend Fuels Obtained from Waste Pumpkin Seed- Camelina Oils

The primary aim of utilizing biodiesel is to reduce dependency on fossil fuels, decrease harmful emissions, and promote the use of renewable energy sources. Studies on biodiesel commonly revolve around singular biodiesel-petroleum diesel blends. Binary biodiesel is generally obtained by mixing different types of biodiesel or blending these mixtures with petroleum diesel. The combination of these diverse feedstocks with distinct properties can offer varying characteristics and benefits. Many studies regarding liquid biofuels primarily focus on blends of singular biodiesel with diesel. Raw materials constitute a substantial portion of the cost in biodiesel production. Hence, efforts have been made to favor non-edible and waste products as raw materials. Additionally, products that are suitable for cultivation in Turkey and easy to obtain as raw materials, supporting domestic biofuel production, have been chosen. Biodiesels obtained from waste pumpkin seeds and linseed oils through the transesterification method were blended at volumetric ratios of 1:1 and 1:3 to obtain binary biodiesel fuels (C50P50, C25P75, and C75P25). The binary biodiesel-diesel blend fuels were achieved by blending different volume ratios of binary biodiesel fuels (C25P25D50 and C10P10D80) with traditional petroleum diesel after their preparation. Subsequent analyses focused on determining the physicochemical properties (density, kinematic viscosity, flash point, water content, calorific value, cold filter plugging point, and copper strip corrosion) of the prepared binary biodiesel and binary biodiesel-diesel blend fuels. Compliance with biodiesel standards (EN 14214, ASTM D-6751) was observed for all fuels, and the results were compared with the reference fuel, diesel (petroleum). According to the analysis results, all the tested fuels met the standards, with the C10P10D80 blend fuel displaying the closest resemblance to diesel.

Use of Sulfuric Acid-Impregnated Biochar Catalyst in Making of Biodiesel From Waste Cooking Oil Via Leaching Method

The biodiesel synthesis of waste cooking oil (WCO) over a impregnated biochar catalyst was systematically studied. This research aimed to prepare Biochar-based material that comes from coconut coir, activate it, and apply it as a catalyst to the esterification reaction of high-FFA waste cooking oil. Activation of the catalyst was done by impregnation H2SO4 solution in Biochar. The obtained catalyst was characterized by FTIR, XRF, XRD, surface area analyzer, and SEM-EDS. The esterification process was conducted by varying the catalyst weight (5, 7, and 10 wt%) and the reaction temperature (55 and 60 °C). The obtained liquid yields were characterized by GC-MS. The study found that the esterification process worked best with 10 wt% catalysts, a 1:76 mole ratio of oil to alcohol, and a reaction temperature of 60 °C. The waste cooking oil was successfully converted into biodiesel, reaching 84.50% of yield and 77.30% of purity (methyl ester content). Meanwhile, testing using national biodiesel standards with parameter limits of density, viscosity, iodine number, and acid number shows results that meet the requirements. Copyright © 2024 by Authors, Published by BCREC Publishing Group. This is an open access article under the CC BY-SA License (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0).

Photosynthetic microalgae microbial fuel cells for bioelectricity generation and microalgae lipid recovery using Gd-Co@N-CSs/NF as cathode

Photosynthetic microalgae microbial fuel cells (PMMFCs) have an enormous potential for wastewater treatment and bioenergy recovery. However, to overcome low power generation problem, it is crucial to understand how the operational parameters influence the pathways and mechanisms of PMMFCs performance. In this study, microalgae (Chlorella vulgaris, Chlorella sp., Tetradesmus obliquus and Microcystis aeruginosa), light intensity (1400, 2100 and 3200 lx) and light/dark cycle (12/12, 18/6 and 24/0) were screened to promote the bioenergy recovery of PMMFCs. The highest power generation and electrochemical activity were obtained for Chlorella vulgaris under 3200 lx and cycle 18/6, with the maximum power density of 2.0 W m−3, and the lowest charge transfer resistance of 26.60 Ω and Tafel slope of 44.74 mV dec−1. Correlation analysis showed a significant negative correlation between NH4+-N concentration in the cathode chamber and output voltage. Structural equation model further elucidated that NH4+-N indirectly regulated the output voltage via the negative association with dissolved oxygen. In addition, the by-product lipid reached 145 mg g−1 dry mass. Furthermore, the specific gravity, iodine value, and cetane number of the fatty acids met the production standards for biodiesel. The electroactive bacteria Propionibacteriaceae (24.45%) were the dominant genera. This study provided suitable microalgae species and crucial operating conditions for bioenergy recovery from electrochemical systems with high catalytic activity.

Techno-economic evaluation of transesterification processes for biodiesel production from low quality non-edible feedstocks: Process design and simulation

The global demand for fossil fuels has led to increased pollutant emissions and depleted fossil fuel resources. Biodiesel, a fossil fuel alternative, is widely produced via transesterification. This study assesses the techno-economic performances of three transesterification processes (alkaline, acid, and CaO catalytic) for biodiesel production from low-quality non-edible feedstocks. The study explores effects of elevated free fatty acids (FFAs) and oil/ethanol flow rates on these processes, focusing on their impact on yield, purity, economics and energy aspects. Aspen Plus® V10 software was used for simulations. Despite meeting international biodiesel standards, significant technical and economic variations exist among the processes. The acid catalytic process exhibits energy requirements surpassing those of alkaline and CaO catalytic processes by over 29.58%, leading to operational costs exceeding those of CaO catalysis by 13.11%. The study establishes CaO catalysis as the most feasible option due to its simplicity, adaptability, and substantial energy and cost reductions. By introducing a closed-loop blending setup configuration, the study reveals that CaO catalysis outperforms alkaline and acid catalysis, achieving 11.59% cost reduction and 13.31% energy decrease in closed-loop configurations. The overall results highlight the potential of non-edible feedstocks in biodiesel production for a more environmentally friendly and sustainable energy future.

Application of simultaneous rapeseed oil extraction and interesterification with methyl formate using enzymatic catalyst

A novel method of interesterification of rapeseed oil utilising methyl fomate and an enzymatic catalyst to produce biodiesel without the need for glycerol separation was researched. Using the enzyme preparation Lipozyme TL IM as a catalyst, the simultaneous processes of oil extraction from rapeseed and interesterification in-situ were investigated. Three independent variables were assessed for their interaction and impact on the yield of rapeseed methyl esters: the mass ratio of methyl formate to rapeseed, the time, and the amount of catalyst. Utilising surface response methodology, process optimisation was performed, and a model explaining the impact of independent variables on the yield of rapeseed methyl esters was developed. Lab testing has verified that the optimal process parameters have been identified, resulting in a 94.24 % rapeseed methyl ester yield. Using a 48:1 mass ratio of methyl formate to rapeseed and 23.33 % of the enzymatic catalyst in 64.5 h produced the highest yield. The reaction product contained conventional biodiesel (rapeseed methyl esters) along with mono-, di-, and triformyl glycerides. The interesterification product's physical and chemical characteristics were identified, and the resulting quality indicators were compared with the specifications of standards for biodiesel and mineral diesel fuel.

A Green Nanocatalyst for Fatty Acid Methyl Ester Conversion from Waste Cooking Oil

This study used a novel combination of cellulose nanocrystals (CNCs) and calcium oxide (CaO) nanocomposite (CaO/CNCs) for the production of biodiesel from waste cooking oil. The filter paper was used as a raw cellulose source to produce the CNCs from the acid hydrolysis of cellulose with sulfuric acid. The as-synthesized CaO/CNC nanocomposite is recyclable and environmentally friendly and was characterized using Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, energy dispersive X-ray, scanning electron microscopy, and X-ray diffraction. The optimum process parameters investigated are a 20:1 methanol-to-oil molar ratio, 3-weight percent catalyst concentration, 60 °C temperature, and 90 min of reaction time. Under the optimum conditions, a biodiesel yield of 84% was obtained. The CaO/CNC nanocomposite achieved five times reusability, indicating its effectiveness and reusability in the transesterification reaction. The synthesized biodiesel chemical composition was examined using FTIR, GCMS, 1H-NMR, and 13C-NMR, and its properties, including specific gravity, color, flash point, cloud point, pour point, viscosity, sulfur content, sediments, water content, total acid number, cetane number, and corrosion test, were ascertained using ASTM standard practices. The outcomes were determined to fulfill global biodiesel standards (ASTM 951, 6751). Five successive transesterification processes were used to test the regeneration of the catalyst; the first three showed no distinct change, while the fifth cycle showed a reduction of up to 79%. The innovative composite CaO/CNC and used cooking oil are stable, affordable, and extremely successful for long-term biodiesel generation.

Sugarcane bagasse valorization through integrated process for single cell oil, sulfonated carbon-based catalyst and biodiesel co-production

This study demonstrates the conversion of sugarcane bagasse (SB) into single cell oil (SCO), sulfonated carbon-based catalyst and biodiesel; this process aligns with waste-to-energy and circular bioeconomy concepts. SB was treated with dilute sulfuric acid to achieve SB hydrolysate (SBH) and SB solid residue (SBS). Candida tropicalis KKU-NP1, a newly isolated yeast, accumulated SCO content of 26.5 % from undetoxified SBH medium. A novel sulfonated carbon-based catalyst (SBS@SC) was generated from SBS by a one-step hydrothermal sulfonation process. It showed significant catalytic activity for the conversion of SCO-rich KKU-NP1 wet cell into biodiesel (FAME) under direct transesterification optimal conditions, with a FAME conversion yield of 90.1 %. Based on FAME profile, most of the estimated physicochemical and fuel properties of FAME were within the limits of ASTMD6751 and EN 14214 for biodiesel standards. For integrated process the final production of about 12.0 g SCO, 606.3 g SBS@SC catalyst and 10.8 g biodiesel from 1000 g raw SB were achieved.This study highlights the utilization of SB as a low-cost feedstock for producing multiple value-added products, emphasizing the advantages of waste utilization by integrated biorefinery concept, yielding practically no waste by-products over the whole production process.