Standardized Language Tests Research Articles

Nonverbal Executive Functioning in Relation to Vocabulary and Morphosyntax in Preschool Children With and Without Developmental Language Disorder.

Developmental language disorder (DLD) is characterized by persistent and unexplained difficulties in language development. Accumulating evidence shows that children with DLD also present with deficits in other cognitive domains, such as executive functioning (EF). There is an ongoing debate on whether exclusively verbal EF abilities are impaired in children with DLD or whether nonverbal EF is also impaired, and whether these EF impairments are related to their language difficulties. The aims of this study were to (a) compare nonverbal performance of preschoolers with DLD and typically developing (TD) peers, (b) examine how nonverbal EF and language abilities are related, and (c) investigate whether a diagnosis of DLD moderates the relationship between EF and language abilities. A total of 143 children (nDLD = 65, nTD = 78) participated. All children were between 3 and 6.5 years old and were monolingual Dutch. We assessed nonverbal EF with a visual selective attention task, a visuospatial short-term and working memory task, and a task gauging broad EF abilities. Vocabulary and morphosyntax were each measured with two standardized language tests. We created latent variables for EF, vocabulary, and morphosyntax. Analyses showed that children with DLD were outperformed by their TD peers on all nonverbal EF tasks. Nonverbal EF abilities were related to morphosyntactic abilities in both groups, whereas a relationship between vocabulary and EF skills was found in the TD group only. These relationships were not significantly moderated by a diagnosis of DLD. We found evidence for nonverbal EF impairments in preschool children with DLD. Moreover, nonverbal EF and morphosyntactic abilities were significantly related in these children. These findings may have implications for intervention and support the improvement of prognostic accuracy. https://doi.org/10.23641/asha.24121287.

ROZVOJ ČTENÁŘSKÉ PREGRAMOTNOSTI V RODINĚ PŘEDŠKOLNÍCH DĚTÍ

The current study is part of a dissertation that deals with the development of reading literacy in a family of preschool children in kindergarten. This study aimed to determine the parental practices that influence preliteracy development in preschool children. For these purposes, a combination of research methods was used - a questionnaire, a diary of parents and an interview with parents. In this post, I present the interviews' results in comparison with the pre-test, which was aimed at determining language and speech skills. The results showed that the differences between parents' practices are noticeable, which to some extent corresponds to the results of individual children in a standardized language and speech skills test. At the end of the thesis, I consider the possible connections of these research findings.

Literacy Measures That Leverage the Strengths of Spanish-Speaking Latino Kindergarteners

Researchers largely rely on child language and literacy measures to determine the effectiveness of interventions for Latino dual language learners. However, some of these measures may miss certain strengths of these students. This study identified two unstandardized language and literacy tasks (IDELA food and animal vocabulary and personal narratives) that might leverage some eco-cultural assets of Latino children; it also examined concurrent associations between these tasks and standardized language and literacy tests. Participants were 237 Latino kindergarteners ( M age = 67.22 months, SD = 4.12; 51% female). Positive associations were found between standardized tests and the IDELA food and animal vocabulary ( β = 0.92–1.40; large magnitude) and personal narrative tasks ( β = 0.28–0.46; medium magnitude), controlling for important covariates, including the language of administration of assessment. Further research might use these tasks as complementary assessments to gauge the impact of interventions on the language and literacy skills of Latino dual-language learners in kindergarten.

The Language Environment at Home of Children With (a Suspicion of) a Developmental Language Disorder and Relations With Standardized Language Measures.

This study compares the home language environments of children with (a suspicion of) developmental language disorder (DLD) with that of children with typical development (TD). It does so by adopting new technology that automatically provides metrics about children's language environment (Language ENvironment Analysis [LENA]). In addition, relationships between LENA metrics and standardized language tests are explored in the DLD group. Ninety-nine 2- to 4-year-old toddlers participated: 59 with (a suspicion of) DLD and 40 with TD. LENA metrics on adult word count, conversational turn count, and child vocalization count were obtained. For all children, data on parental education and multilingualism were available. In the DLD group, data were collected on receptive and expressive vocabulary and grammar, and on nonverbal intelligence, using standardized tests. We found lower adult word count, conversational turn count, and child vocalization count in the DLD group, independent of multilingualism but not of parental education. In the DLD group, receptive vocabulary was related to conversational turn count and child vocalization count, but not to adult word count. Expressive vocabulary, receptive grammar, and expressive grammar were not related to LENA metrics. Toddlers with (a suspicion of) DLD vocalize less at home than children with TD. They also hear fewer adult words and experience fewer conversational turns. Children with DLD's language outcomes are to a limited extent related to language environment at home. Conversational turns and child vocalizations are in this respect more important than adult words, in line with findings for TD populations.

A Study of Validity and Satisfaction of Tele-assessment

Objectives: This study aims to examine the validity of two types of remote language screening tests (indirect questionnaire type vs direct observational type), and differences in performance of children as well as satisfaction of their mothers between these two types of remote language screening test. Methods: In total 40 children without any language deficits aged 3 to 6 and their mothers participated in this study. For statistical analysis, a Pearson correlation was conducted between the remote language screening tests (indirect questionnaire type and direct observation type); a PRES (Preschool Receptive-Expressive Language Scale) to find out the concurrent validity, and a paired t-test was conducted to find out if there are significant differences in the performance of the children and satisfaction of their mothers between the two types of screening tests. Additionally as a qualitative analysis, mothers’ preference among two types of the test was asked using an open ended survey. Results: The two types of tests (indirect, direct) showed strong positive correlation with one another. Regarding concurrent validity, both test types showed strong positive correlation with a standardized language test as well. There was no significant difference between the two types in both the performance of the children and the satisfaction of mothers as well. However, 85% percent of mothers preferred the direct observation type citing better accuracy as their reasoning. Conclusion: It is hoped that remote language screening tests can contribute to the implementation of non-face-to-face screening in clinical settings since it is highly validated. Furthermore both two types of tests can be used and complement each other.

Language skills and well-being in early childhood education and care: a cross-sectional exploration in a Swedish context

Language skills play a vital role in academic achievement and support reading and writing acquisition. Language skills also enable children to interact with others and develop social abilities. Given the predictive value of early language skills for academic attainment and their connection to social interaction, they have been suggested to be an indicator of well-being as well. However, children from culturally and linguistically diverse backgrounds present lower scores than their peers with a majority language background on standardized language tests, such as vocabulary assessment. In the current study, we examined the relationship between language and self-reported well-being in the school context, based on data from a community sample of 85 five-year-old children attending eight preschools in three Swedish municipalities. Language skills were assessed through measures of vocabulary (receptive and expressive) and narrative skills (MAIN) and were analyzed using structural equation modeling. Narrative ability and vocabulary skills were correlated, but they appear to be distinct constructs. Exposure at home to the majority language was positively associated with vocabulary skills, while narrative ability was not strongly associated with language background. Language skills and well-being were not significantly correlated in the total sample, but post hoc analysis revealed that language background may affect the association. A novel contribution of this study is empirical data on language performance from a community sample with a large proportion of children with diverse language backgrounds. The relationship between subjective well-being and language skills warrants further investigation.

Auditory pseudoword rhyming effects in bilingual children reflect second language proficiency: An ERP study

This study investigated second language (L2-English) phonological processing in 31 Spanish-English bilingual, 6- to 8-year-old schoolchildren in an event-related potential (ERP) auditory pseudoword rhyming paradigm. In addition, associations between ERP effects and L2 proficiency as measured by standardized tests of receptive language and receptive vocabulary were explored. We found a classic posterior ERP rhyming effect that was more widely distributed in children with higher L2 proficiency in group analyses and was larger for children with better L2 proficiency in correlation analyses. In contrast, the amplitude of an early (75–125 ms) auditory positivity was larger in children with lower L2 proficiency. This pattern suggests differential use of early and late auditory/phonological processing resources in the pseudoword rhyme task associated with L2 proficiency, which is consistent with the predictions of the lexical restructuring model in a bilingual context.

Are You Listening Strategically or Randomly? Examining Listening Comprehension Strategies Among Saudi University EFL Students

Listening is obviously an essential skill for anyone who wishes to acquire a new language, but second-language (L2) listening research is scarce compared to research on L2 reading. Additionally, the literature indicates that Saudi students, regarding listening, lag behind students from other nationalities on standardized international language tests. Hence, in this study, I examined the use of L2 listening comprehension strategies in an English as a foreign language Saudi university context. Based on an existing 19-item psychometrically validated questionnaire followed by a listening test, the results revealed that students were aware of L2 listening strategies and used cognitive strategies slightly more often than metacognitive strategies. However, notably, their less frequent use of practice-based self-regulation listening strategies (e.g., having good partners in practicing listening skills) could adversely impact their L2 listening success. The results also showed a rather weak significant difference between the listening strategic trait and listening test performance; a weak negative significant relationship between listening strategies, age, and years of learning English; and an insignificant relationship between listening comprehension strategies and academic level. However, the results suggest that the number of years of learning English is linked to better listening test performance. Finally, the items in the existing questionnaire, which was employed to assess listening comprehension strategies, lacked internal consistency and had problematic subscales; nevertheless, an acceptable one-factor model emerged from this study.

Gender gaps in Mathematics and Language: The bias of competitive achievement tests.

This research paper examines the extent to which high-stakes competitive tests affect gender gaps in standardized tests of Mathematics and Language. To this end, we estimate models that predict students' results in two national standardized tests: a test that does not affect students' educational trajectory, and a second test that determines access to the most selective universities in Chile. We used data from different gender twins who took these tests. This strategy allows us to control, through household fixed effects, the observed and unobserved household characteristics. Our results show that competitive tests negatively affect women. In Mathematics, according to both tests, there is a gender gap in favor of men, which increases in the university entrance exam, especially for high-performance students. As the literature review shows, women are negatively stereotyped in Mathematics, so this stereotype threat could penalize high-achieving women, that is, those that go against the stereotype. In Language tests, women outperform men in the standardized test taken in high school, but the situation is reversed in the university entrance exam. From our analysis of Chilean national data, we find no evidence that the gender effect observed in the competitive test depends on the students' achievement level. Following the literature, this gender gap may be linked to women's risk aversion, lower self-confidence, lower preference for competition, as well as the effect of answering a test under time pressure.

Language Profiles of School-Aged Children with 22q11.2 Copy Number Variants.

Although it is known that copy number variants (CNVs) on chromosome 22, such as 22q11.2 deletion (22q11.2DS) and 22q11.2 duplication (22q11.2Dup) syndromes, are associated with higher risk for neurodevelopmental issues, few studies have examined the language skills across 22q11.2Dup nor compared them with the 22q11.2DS. The current study aims to characterize language abilities in school-aged children with 22q11.2Dup (n = 29), compared to age-matched children with 22q11.2DS (n = 29). Standardized language tests were administered, assessing receptive and expressive language skills across different language domains. Results indicate that children with 22q11.2Dup demonstrate significantly more language problems compared to the general population. Mean language skills were not significantly different among children with 22q11.2 CNVs in this cohort. While children with 22q11.2DS demonstrated language difficulties starting at the word level, the most common language problems in children with 22q11.2Dup started at the sentence level. Importantly, both expressive and receptive language as well as lexico-semantic and morphosyntactic domains were impaired in children with 22q11.2 CNVs. Early identification, therapeutic intervention, and follow-up of language impairments in children with 22q11.2Dup are recommended to support language development and to reduce longitudinal impact of language and communicative deficits.

Language gains in 4-6-year-old children with developmental language disorder and the relation with language profile, severity, multilingualism and non-verbal cognition.

Early and effective treatment for children with developmental language disorder (DLD) is important. Although a growing body of research shows the effects of interventions at the group level, clinicians observe large individual differences in language growth, and differences in outcomes across language domains. A systematic understanding of how child characteristics contribute to changes in language skills is still lacking. To assess changes in the language domains: expressive morphosyntax; receptive and expressive vocabulary; and comprehension, in children in special needs education for DLD. To explore if differences in language gains between children are related to child characteristics: language profile; severity of the disorder; being raised mono- or multilingually; and cognitive ability. We extracted data from school records of 154 children (4-6 years old) in special needs education offering a language and communication-stimulating educational environment, including speech and language therapy. Changes in language were measured by comparing the scores on standardized language tests at the beginning and the end of a school year. Next, we related language change to language profile (receptive-expressive versus expressive-only disorders), severity (initial scores), growing up mono- and multilingually, and children's reported non-verbal IQ scores. Overall, the children showed significant improvements in expressive morphosyntax, expressive vocabulary and language comprehension. Baseline scores and gains were lowest for expressive morphosyntax. Differences in language gains between children with receptive-expressive disorders and expressive-only disorders were not significant. There was more improvement in children with lower initial scores. There were no differences between mono- and multilingual children, except for expressive vocabulary. There was no evidence of a relation between non-verbal IQ scores and language growth. Children with DLD in special needs education showed gains in language performance during one school year. There was, however, little change in morphosyntactic scores, which supports previous studies concluding that poor morphosyntax is a persistent characteristic of DLD. Our results indicate that it is important to include all children with DLD in intervention: children with receptive-expressive and expressive disorders; mono- and multilingual children, and children with high, average and low non-verbal IQ scores. We did not find negative relations between these child factors and changes in language skills. What is already known on the subject Intervention studies indicate that intervention can be effective, but not for all children with DLD, and not in all language domains. Longitudinal studies on language development show stable growth patterns in children with DLD at the group level. A systematic understanding of how child characteristics contribute to changes in language skills is still lacking. What this paper adds to existing knowledge In this study, we report on the language gains of a cohort of 154 children with DLD (4-6 years old), in a special education setting for children with language disorders. Our sample includes children with receptive-expressive disorders and expressive-only disorders, and monolingual as well as multilingual children. Our results show that children's language skills improved. The co-normed tests we used revealed that the children had much lower growth in morphosyntax than in the other language domains. Language gains between children with receptive-expressive and expressive-only language disorders did not differ, children with lower initial test scores showed more improvement than children with higher initial scores, multilingual children showed more gains in expressive vocabulary than monolingual children, and there was no effect of non-verbal IQ on change in language scores. What are the potential or actual clinical implications of this work? The results suggest that catching up on language is possible for children with DLD. It is important to include all children with DLD in intervention: mono- and multilingual children; children with receptive-expressive and expressive disorders; and children with high, average and low non-verbal IQ scores. We did not find negative relations between these child factors and changes in language skills. The limited growth in morphosyntax compared with other linguistic areas warrants the attention of both practitioners and researchers, with a particular focus on the implementation of research findings in clinical practice.

Associations between early efficiency in language processing and language and cognitive outcomes in children born full term and preterm: similarities and differences

ABSTRACT Associations between children’s early language processing efficiency and later verbal and non-verbal outcomes shed light on the extent to which early information processing skills support later learning across different domains of function. Examining whether the strengths of associations are similar in typically developing and at-risk populations provides an additional lens into the varying routes to learning that children may take across development. In this follow-up study, children born full-term (FT, n = 49) and preterm (PT, n = 45, ≤32 weeks gestational age, birth weight <1800 g) were assessed in the Looking While Listening (LWL) task at 18 months (corrected for degree of prematurity in PT group). This eye-tracking task assesses efficiency of real-time spoken language comprehension as accuracy and speed (RT) of processing. At 4 ½ years, children were assessed on standardized tests of receptive vocabulary, expressive language, and non-verbal IQ. Language processing efficiency was associated with both language outcomes (r 2-change: 7.0–19.7%, p < 0.01), after covariates. Birth group did not moderate these effects, suggesting similar mechanisms of learning in these domains for PT and FT children. However, birth group moderated the association between speed and non-verbal IQ (r 2-change: 4.5%, p < 0.05), such that an association was found in the PT but not the FT group. This finding suggests that information processing skills reflected in efficiency of real-time language processing may be recruited to support learning in a broader range of verbal and non-verbal domains in the PT compared to the FT group.

7.6 Considerations and Directions to Support Children with Co-occurring Language and Emotional and Behavior Disorders

The failure of current systems to identify language deficits in youth with emotional and behavior disorders (EBDs) across multiple settings and developmental stages is well-documented; that is, 47% of those with EBDs have previously undiagnosed language deficits with scores >2 SD below the mean on standardized language tests. Finding solutions to this issue remains a work in progress. Participants will be able to: 1) summarize empirical evidence of comorbidity; 2) articulate an interaction-centered model for language and behavioral development; 3) consider developmental windows for which screening, prevention, and intervention efforts are likely to be most efficacious; and 4) discuss recommendations for and implications of collaborative efforts to improve outcomes for this population.

P01.13.A The effect of musicality on language recovery after awake glioma surgery

Abstract Background Awake craniotomy is used to resect tumor while preserving language. However, differences between patients in post-operative speech/language outcome are observed despite careful intra-operative monitoring. Literature describes improved performance in language tasks during cognitive tests in musicians. Moreover increased white matter connectivity properties in the corpus callosum are described in musicians compared to non-musicians. We hypothesize better recovery of language in musical patients after awake glioma surgery, caused by higher connectivity properties from the corpus callosum. Material and Methods Adult patients undergoing resection for glioma with an awake resection procedure at two neurosurgical centers were prospectively included. Patients without standardized language tests at pre- and post-operative level, with a glioblastoma multiforme (WHO grade 4) or undergoing re-resection were excluded. Language was assessed with the Diagnostic Instrument for Mild Aphasia (DIMA) and corrected for age and education years from a healthy population. The patients’ musical skill was assessed through questionnaires, and divided in groups based on the Musical Expertise Criterion (MEC) which defines musicality based the duration and intensity of musical training. Volumetric measures of the corpus callosum, corrected for total brain volumes, was calculated of each included patient based on the pre-operative structural MRI. Results Forty-six patients, enrolled between June 2015 and September 2019, were followed-up (mean/SD; 240/174 days after craniotomy) and divided in: non-musician (41.3%, n = 19), amateur-musician (34.8%, n=16) and trained-musician (23.9%, n = 11). Overall a decrease in language was observed after craniotomy (mean/SD) of -0.361/0.771. Musical abilities correlated with less decrease in language (mean/SD) when comparing non-musicians (-0.543/0.683) to amateur (-0.272/0.910) and trained (-0.176/0.693) musicians. An increased but non-significant trend (p=0.28) between musicality and corpus callosum / brain ratio (mean/SD) was observed in non-musicians (0.763, 0.718;0.808), amateur musicians (0.792, 0.745;0.838) and trained musicians (0.835, 0.778;0.891). Conclusion Musicality seemed to improve language outcome after awake glioma surgery, possibly attributed due to a higher white matter connectivity in the corpus callosum. Future studies with larger sample sizes are needed to confirm our findings.

Dutch Diagnostic Instrument for Mild Aphasia (DIMA): standardisation and a first clinical application in two brain tumour patients

ABSTRACT Brain tumour patients with mild language disturbances are typically underdiagnosed due to lack of sensitive tests leading to negative effects in daily communicative and social life. We aim to develop a Dutch standardised test-battery, the Diagnostic Instrument for Mild Aphasia (DIMA) to detect characteristics of mild aphasia at the main linguistic levels phonology, semantics and (morpho-)syntax in production and comprehension. We designed 4 DIMA subtests: 1) repetition (words, non-words, compounds and sentences), 2) semantic odd-picture-out (objects and actions), 3) sentence completion and 4) sentence judgment (accuracy and reaction time). A normative study was carried out in a healthy Dutch-speaking population (N = 211) divided into groups of gender, age and education. Clinical application of DIMA was demonstrated in two brain tumour patients (glioma and meningioma). Standard language tests were also administered: object naming, verbal fluency (category and letter), and Token Test. Performance was at ceiling on all sub-tests, except semantic odd-picture-out actions, with an effect of age and education on most subtests. Clinical application DIMA: repetition was impaired in both cases. Reaction time in the sentence judgment test (phonology and syntax) was impaired (not accuracy) in one patient. Standard language tests: category fluency was impaired in both cases and object naming in one patient. The Token Test was not able to detect language disturbances in both cases. DIMA seems to be sensitive to capture mild aphasic deficits. DIMA is expected to be of great potential for standard assessment of language functions in patients with also other neurological diseases than brain tumours.

A Perceptual Study of Communication Effectiveness in Cluttering

Purpose: The purpose of this study was to investigate listener perception of communication effectiveness when listening to samples of speakers who clutter and exhibit excessive revisions as compared to control speakers matched by gender and education level. Method: In this study, 100 undergraduate listeners rated 30-s monologue samples of adults who clutter and whose speech contained excessive revisions. Ratings were collected via a visual analog scale. After marking their ratings, listeners were asked to write down any details they could recall from each monologue. Results: Adults who clutter were rated significantly poorer than controls in the categories of message, conciseness, flow, and organization. There were no significant differences in ratings by class year. Descriptively, listeners also inaccurately identified the main idea of each speaker's message more often when listening to adults with cluttering as compared to controls. Thematic analysis of listener comments emphasized themes of increased speed, difficulty understanding words, and lack of organization and cohesion among adults who clutter. By contrast, listener comments for controls emphasized increased flow and ease in following speakers' messages. Conclusions: This study provides objective data that listeners judged those who clutter with excessive revisions less favorably than controls in terms of their ability to understand the speakers' main point, ability to get to the point, smooth flow of speech, organization of message, and clarity of speech. These judgments occurred despite normal scores on standardized language tests among the participants with cluttering.

Native language development of Dutch–English bilingual children in Australia

This study aimed to track language development and possible factors of language loss in 50 primary-school-aged bilingual Dutch–English children, and it follows up a study conducted one year prior. Dutch language skills were assessed through the standardized language test CELF4-NL and language background factors were assessed through the Alberta Language Environment Questionnaire. Reading books in the native language Dutch contributed significantly to children’s language development. Speaking the native language at home with both parents and siblings contributed to better Dutch language skills. Additionally, schooling outside of the home situation in the native language seems to contribute to positive language development in children after one-year follow up.

A Nonword Repetition Task Discriminates Typically Developing Italian-German Bilingual Children From Bilingual Children With Developmental Language Disorder: The Role of Language-Specific and Language-Non-specific Nonwords.

In bi- and monolingual children, nonword repetition tasks (NWRTs) differentiate between typically developing (TD) and children with Developmental Language Disorder (DLD). Language specificity is a crucial factor in nonword construction especially for multilingual children. While language-specific nonwords seem less artificial than non-specific nonwords, the application of language-specific phonemes may be less suitable for bilingual children who are exposed to the target language less than monolingual peers. This study evaluates the concurrent and predictive value of a novel, computerized NWRT implemented in the MuLiMi web-platform and its potential in the discrimination of bilingual children with and without DLD, investigating the role of nonwords’ language specificity. Thirty-seven children (of whom 17 had an objective risk of phonological disorders) with at least one Italian-speaking parent, living and attending kindergartens in Germany were tested with the MuLiMi NWRT and German standardized language tests. Caregivers and kindergarten teachers filled in questionnaires. Fourteen of the children were re-tested after 8–12 months. The results suggest that the new test’s concurrent and discriminative validity are good. Analysis of variance revealed highly significant differences between children with and without (an objective risk of) phonological disorders and a significant interaction between nonword specificity and risk group. Significant correlations of initial scores with follow-up scores collected after 8–12 months were also found, as well as correlations with improvements in language abilities. In conclusion, although both language-specific and language-non-specific nonword repetition can support DLD risk identification in bilingual children, language-specific stimuli appear to be particularly sensitive indicators. This is interpreted as confirming DLD children’s reduced sensitivity to frequent, familiar characteristics of the linguistic stimuli. The test’s discriminative and concurrent validity showed to be robust to various potentially influencing factors like patterns of language exposure.

Air pollution, children's academic achievement and the potential mediating role of preterm birth.

Previous research has observed relationships between higher prenatal exposure to air pollutants and neurodevelopmental and academic outcomes later in childhood. Identifying intermediate outcomes mediating this relationship would inform prevention and intervention efforts. We aimed to investigate if previously observed associations between prenatal exposure to common urban air pollutants, diesel and perchloroethylene, and performance on third grade standardized tests were mediated through increased risk of preterm birth. Data from the 1994-1998 birth cohorts within the New York City Longitudinal Study of Early Development were included in this analysis. Exposure was determined by linking the mother's residence at the time of delivery to the U.S. EPA's 1996 National Air Toxic Assessment of estimated ambient concentrations of diesel and perchloroethylene. Children's third grade standardized math and language tests were used as the markers for academic achievement. Missing data on covariates were imputed, while participants with missing information on gestational age and test scores were excluded. Linear regression models and causal mediation analysis were used to examine potential mediation by preterm birth. In total, 187,723 and 196,122 participants were included in language and math analyses, respectively. Children with exposure to the fourth quartile of diesel or perchloroethylene had approximately 0.03 (95%CI: 0.02, 0.04) lower math z-scores when compared to individuals with exposure in the first quartile, although there was no consistent decreasing trend in math z-scores over increasing quartiles of diesel or perchloroethylene. We did not find evidence of mediation by preterm birth or exposure-mediator interaction in our models. We did not find evidence that observed relationships between exposure to common urban air pollutants and test z-scores in childhood were mediated through an increased risk of preterm birth. This suggests other pathways between early exposure to air pollution and neurodevelopment should be investigated with causal mediation approaches.

Characteristics of Fictional Stories in Children with Autism Spectrum Disorder: Evidence from the Farsi

Background: Narrative ability is a critical component of social communication essential for participating in everyday activities. Children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) demonstrate problems in the narrative discourse, but little is known about the features of their fictional stories. Objectives: This study compared fictional narratives between ASD children and they’re typically developing (TD) peers. Methods: Fictional stories produced by 6- to-7-year-old males with high functioning autism (n = 14) were compared with language, sex, and age-matched TD children (n = 15). The stories were analyzed using the monitoring indicators of scholarly language. The macrostructure and microstructure elements, narrative complexity index, story knowledge index, and perspective-taking index were compared between the two groups by one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) at the significance level of 0.05. Results: The scores of macrostructure and microstructure elements were lower in children with ASD. The ANOVA showed significant differences between ASD and TD children in three indices (P &lt; 0.05). Moreover, the Pearson correlation coefficients between the total macrostructure and microstructure scores were close to one in both ASD (r = 0.89) and TD children (r = 0.93). Conclusions: Despite obtaining scores in the average range in a standard language test, Farsi-speaking children with ASD experience limitations in fictional narratives.