Standard Progressive Matrices Research Articles

Exploring the link between intelligence and drug abuse among juvenile felons in India

ABSTRACT Children involved in the juvenile justice system are more likely to struggle with substance abuse and intellectual disabilities. Substance abuse is a major public health concern among young individuals globally, including juvenile felons. This study examines the relationships and factors that influence juvenile felons’ substance abuse, intelligence, and delinquent behaviour. This study applies a descriptive cross-sectional survey design using a purposive sampling technique. The participants included 163 male juveniles from Tamil Nadu, India. The psychological measures used for the study were the Alcohol, Smoking, and Substance Involvement Screening Test (ASSIST) scale, the Standard Progressive Matrices, and the Australian Self-reported Delinquency Scale. According to the study’s findings, intelligence does not have a significant impact on juvenile felons’ delinquent behaviour. Furthermore, the study identified repeated offences and runaway behaviour as factors that increase the risk of substance abuse. Juvenile felons’ substance abuse significantly influences and predicts their delinquent behaviour.

Применение корреляционного анализа для определения рассогласования показателей для двух разных выборок: сопоставление интеллектуального и личностного развития детей младшего школьного возраста, исследуемых с интервалом в 10 лет

<p>Correlation analysis, which is actively used in psychological research to identify the relationship between psychological parameters, loses its meaning when the samples being compared are different. At the same time, studying possible connections of psychological indicators between samples may have some meaning in special cases. Purpose of the work: to show the possibilities and propose a technology for using correlation analysis to determine the agreement of indicators for two different samples using the example of a long-term (retrospective and modern) study of the intellectual and personal characteristics of the development of schoolchildren in the 2nd grade of a general school with an age difference of 10 years. For correlation analysis, we used assessments of intellectual development according to the level of work in the “Beasts in the Circus” method of the “Creative Field” method (Bogoyavlenskaya, 1971) and intelligence according to the “Standard Progressive Matrices” test by J. Raven. To implement the possibility of a full correlation analysis of general indicators of different samples, the work proposed a technique for preliminary linking two different samples of the same size to each other by matching them on one of the common sample variables.</p>

106 Characteristics of Cognitive Impairment in Moyamoya Disease

INTRODUCTION: Cognitive impairment in adult moyamoya disease (MMD) is thought to be the result of ischemic stroke; however, the presence and extent of cognitive decline in asymptomatic patients remain largely unknown. METHODS: After classification using T2-weighted fluid attenuated inversion recovery (FLAIR) magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), a total of 19 MMD patients with a history of cerebral infarction, 21 asymptomatic MMD patients, and 20 healthy controls matched for age, sex, and years of education were prospectively included in this study. A detailed neuropsychological evaluation of two moyamoya subgroups and normal controls was conducted. In addition, participants underwent arterial spin labeling and resting state fMRI sequences. RESULTS: Asymptomatic patients showed varying degrees of decline in intelligence (Raven’s Standard Progressive Matrices, P = 0.001), spatial imagination (mental rotation, P = 0.014), working memory (verbal working memory-backward digit span, P = 0.011), and computational ability (simple subtraction, P = 0.014; complex subtraction, P < 0.001) compared with normal controls. MMD patients with cerebral infarction had more severe impairment in complex arithmetic (P = 0.027) and word short-term memory (P = 0.01) than those without symptoms. The asymptomatic MMD group also showed decreased CBF in the left anterior central and left inferior frontal gyri of the island fap with multiple node abnormalities in the brain network and reduced network connectivity. There was a significant association of these changes with cognitive decline in the MMD group. CONCLUSIONS: In asymptomatic MMD patients, a variety of cognitive impairments precedes the onset of clinical symptoms such as cerebral infarction, which may be a long-term complication of conservative treatment. Besides, disturbance of CBF and impaired brain network connections may be important causes of cognitive decline.

Creative Activities Among Older Adults and People With Cognitive Impairment

ABSTRACTLittle is known about creativity in old age. The aim of this study was to investigate to what extent the intensity of engaging in creative activities differs between older and younger people as well as older people with and without cognitive impairment. Moreover, we evaluated associations of creative activities with specific cognitive abilities. For this cross‐sectional study, groups of younger people (n = 24), older cognitively healthy people (n = 24), and older cognitively impaired people (n = 23) were recruited via convenience sampling. Creative activities were assessed via the creative behavior inventory (CBI). Cognitive abilities were assessed via trail making test (TMT), standard progressive matrices (SPM), creative reasoning task (CRT), test of creative thinking‐drawing production (TCT‐DP), and alternate uses task (AUT). The intensity of engaging in creative activities was higher among younger people but was not significantly associated with being cognitively impaired. Only two cognitive abilities, the creative thinking scores CRT‐Components and TCT‐DP‐Original, predicted creative activities. Both did not differ significantly between cognitively healthy and cognitively impaired older adults. The findings suggest that cognitively impaired older people still engage in creative activities, which might be due to their relatively sound creative thinking. Further studies should investigate whether engaging in creative activities can mitigate cognitive decline.

Development of reasoning performance in Raven's matrices is grounded in the development of effective strategy use.

Performance in reasoning tasks such as Raven's matrices experiences a dramatic increase over cognitive development, but the mechanisms responsible for this increase are unknown. Many cognitive processes are involved in a matrix task and could potentially change with age; strategy use appears to be a good candidate, as it typically improves over development and has a large impact on reasoning performance in adults. The present study tested the role of effective strategy use in Raven's standard progressive matrices in groups of 6-, 8-, 10-, 12-, 14-, 16-, and 18-year-olds (total N = 474). Strategy use was assessed with behavioral measures of gaze patterns in Raven's matrices. We also measured working memory capacity (WMC), a good predictor of strategy use in adults, using a battery of complex spans. The results showed that the effective strategy of constructive matching substantially increased with age, along with performance. Strategy use mediated over half the effect of age on reasoning performance. Older participants were also better at adapting strategy use to difficulty of the problems. Effective strategy use was beneficial to the same extent for participants of all ages. Age-related improvements in strategy use occurred in tandem with improvements in WMC, but did not appear to be primarily driven by them. Overall, our results indicate that strategy use is a critical underpinning of reasoning performance in children as well as in adults, and that theories of cognitive development of reasoning have to consider the central role of strategy use. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2024 APA, all rights reserved).

Association of blood lead level with cognitive performance and general intelligence of urban school children in ten cities of India

BackgroundLead is toxic to children and effects the cognitive development. The primary objective was to assess the association of blood lead level (BLL) with cognitive performance and general intelligence, of urban school going children aged 6–16 years from ten cities of India. Secondary objective was to assess the association of anaemia with cognitive performance and general intelligence. MethodIn this cross-sectional multicentric study, general intelligence was assessed by colored progressive matrices (CPM)/standard progressive matrices (SPM) test, visual-spatial ability through coding, attention and concentration ability through digit span and working memory through arithmetic tests. Blood samples of participants were collected to assess lead levels. Socioeconomic status and anthropometric measures were also collected. ResultsFrom April 2019–February 2020, 2247 participants with equal gender distribution were enrolled from 60 schools. The median (IQR) BLL was 8.8 (4.8, 16.4) μg/dl. We found that BLL was significantly associated with attention and concentration ability and 1 μg/dl increase in BLL decreases the performance by odds of 1.02 (95 % CI 1.01–1.03). Anaemia is found to be associated with ‘borderline or dull normal’ performance for general intelligence [Adjusted Odds Ratio (AOR) = 1.93 (95 % CI 1.53–2.45)], visual-spatial [AOR = 1.35 (95 % CI 1.03–1.76)], attention and concentration [AOR = 1.30 (95 % CI 1.02–1.66)], working memory [AOR = 1.69 (95 % CI 1.34–2.12)] abilities. ConclusionSince increasing BLL decreases cognitive performance and anaemia decreased both cognitive performance and intelligence, attempts must be made to keep BLL as low as possible and prevent exposure in school going children.

COGNITIVE FUNCTIONING AMONG GRANDPARENT CAREGIVERS: AN INTERGENERATIONAL PERSPECTIVE

Abstract Grandparents have a unique bond with their grandchildren, given their position in the grandchild’s life. They may be a historian, mentor, playmate, caregiver, role model, advocate, and friend. These interactions may offer an opportunity for cognitive engagement, but the level of this engagement may in turn be linked to a grandparent’s cognitive status. For example, memory issues may challenge one’s ability to serve as a historian for a grandchild. To better understand the association of caregiving and engagement in activities with a grandchild on cognition, a secondary analysis was conducted to examine how cognitive functions differ by engagement time. Drawing from approximately 1,200 participants in the Health and Retirement Study who indicated activity engagement with grandchildren and who also completed the Harmonized Cognitive Assessment Protocol (HCAP) regression analyses were conducted examining the link between grandparent engagement with grandchildren and cognitive measures including Constructional Praxis Delayed, Backwards Counting, Raven’s Standard Progressive Matrices, Brave Man Delayed, and Digit Symbol Modalities. Results from the analyses revealed that Raven’s Matrices (P = 0.007), Backwards Counting (P = 0.041), and Constructional Praxis (P = 0.030), were most closely linked to activity engagement with grandchildren, providing preliminary evidence that working memory is closely linked to caregiving engagement. However, the results also revealed a bimodal distribution, suggesting that too little and too much caregiving were associated with worse cognition. These findings provide preliminary evidence that illustrates how interacting with and caregiving for grandchildren may be both a protective factor and a risk factor for older adults.

Studi Kasus: Pengaruh Cognitive Behavior Therapy (CBT) pada Klien dengan Diagnosa Gangguan Afektif Bipolar

This study aims to explore how the cognitive behavioural therapy affected a client with bipolar affective disorder. Participant was a 25-years-old woman (SM) who is diagnosed with bipolar disorder specify current or most recent episode: manic, depressed (F31.6). Before beginning the therapy session, the participant completed a series of assessment, including interview (autoanamnesa and alloanamnesa), observation, graphic tests (BAUM, DAP, HTP Wartegg) and Sack’s Sentence Completion Test (SSCT) to evaluate the participant’s personality, and Standard Progressive Matrices (SPM) to assess cognitive ability. Therapy was conducted in 5 sessions (1 session each week) with additional daily task to track the thoughts and behaviors pattern. The result shows a decrease in depression scores (BDI-II) and also SUDS (Subjective Unit Disturbance Scale). Qualitatively, CBT helps the participant to select her own automatic negative thoughts and form more adaptive thinking pattern by her own. Participant also shows an increasing score in GAF (Global Assesment Functioning) after completing the whole therapy sessions

Influence of psychological variables on divergent thinking in adolescents: A cross-sectional study

Divergent thinking (DT) is a thought process wherein many original ideas are conceptualized and unique suggestions are proffered to identify the best possible solution to a problem; it is an important component of creativity. The present study endeavors to examine the level of DT in school students and the primary factors influencing DT with the help of assessment tests such as Standard Progressive Matrices (SPM), the Emotional Intelligence Scale (EIS test), and Sharma’s Divergent Production Abilities Test (DPA). A cross-sectional study is done using quantitative methodology and probability sampling techniques. The participants of the study are [n = 192 (boys = 106, girls = 86)] school students in the age range of 11–14 years, and the study area is Tiruppur district in Tamil Nadu. Results indicate that DT and EI are negatively correlated with each other, and there is no relationship between DT and intelligence quotient (IQ). Gender differences in DT are identified, with males scoring higher than females on assessment tests. There is no significant difference between the influences of demographic factors like geographical area, economic status, age, birth order, and hand preference on DT. The study’s major conclusion about education is that students at CBSE schools do better than those at private and government-run schools. The performance of government school students is rather poor when compared to CBSE and private schools. This indicates that government school students require proper training, timely assistance, and innovative teaching methods, which lead to the enhancement of DT and creativity.

Increased brain activation and functional connectivity after working memory training in patients with ischemic stroke: an fMRI study

ObjectiveWorking memory (WM) impairment is common in patients after a stroke. WM training (WMT) has been suggested as a way to improve cognitive function. However, the neural effects following WMT in stroke patients remain largely unclear. This study aimed to explore the behavioral changes and neural effects of WMT on patients with chronic ischemic stroke.MethodsFifty first-ever ischemic stroke patients with WM deficits in the chronic stage were randomly assigned to either a 4-week WMT group or a control group. Verbal n-back, digital and spatial memory-span, Raven's standard progressive matrices, and the Stroop color-word test, as well as task-state and resting-state fMRI were assessed for all patients at baseline and after the intervention.ResultsThe WMT group showed improvements in WM, fluid intelligence, and attention after training. Additionally, the WMT group exhibited increased activation in the left middle frontal gyrus (MFG) and middle occipital gyrus after training. At baseline, all patients were impaired in their abilities to elevate activation in their WM network as a response to increasing WM load. However, in the WMT group, increased activation was observed in the left cerebellum anterior lobe, right cerebellum posterior lobe (CPL), and MFG in the 2-back vs. 1-back contrast after WMT. We also found increased functional connectivity between the left MFG and the left inferior parietal lobule (IPL), and between the bilateral IPL and the right CPL after training in the WMT group.ConclusionOur study supported that WMT potentially improved WM capacity in ischemic stroke patients during the chronic stage, and that the training effects might transfer to fluid intelligence and attention ability. Our results also demonstrated that repeated WMT potentially increased brain activation and resting-state functional connectivity within the WM network in patients with ischemic stroke. These findings provided robust evidence to support WMT as an effective intervention to enhance cognitive rehabilitation and shed light on the functional neuroplasticity mechanism of WMT on cognitive recovery after ischemic stroke.

Working Memory Training for Children Using the Adaptive, Self-Select, and Stepwise Approaches to Setting the Difficulty Level of Training Activities: Protocol for a Randomized Controlled Trial.

A common yet untested assumption of cognitive training in children is that activities should be adaptive, with difficulty adjusted to the individual's performance in order to maximize improvements on untrained tasks (known as transfer). Working memory training provides the ideal testbed to systematically examine this assumption as it is one of the most widely studied domains in the cognitive training literature, and is critical for children's learning, including following instructions and reasoning. This trial aimed to examine children's outcomes of working memory training using adaptive, self-select (child selects difficulty level), and stepwise (difficulty level increases incrementally) approaches to setting the difficulty of training activities compared to an active control condition immediately and 6-month postintervention. While the aim is exploratory, we hypothesized that children allocated to a working memory training condition would show greater improvements: (1) on near transfer measures compared to intermediate and far transfer measures and (2) immediately postintervention compared to 6-month postintervention. This double-blinded, active-controlled, parallel-group randomized trial aimed to recruit 128 children aged 7 to 11 years from 1 metropolitan primary school in Melbourne, Australia. Following baseline testing, children were randomized into 1 of 4 conditions: adaptive, self-select, or stepwise working memory training, or active control. An experimental intervention embedded in Minecraft was developed for teachers to deliver in class over 2 consecutive weeks (10 × 20-minute sessions). The working memory training comprised 2 training activities with processing demands similar to daily activities: backward span and following instructions. The control comprised creative activities. Pre- and postintervention, children completed a set of working memory tests (near and intermediate transfer) and the Raven's Standard Progressive Matrices (far transfer) to determine training outcomes, as well as motivation questionnaires to determine if motivations toward learning and the intervention were similar across conditions. Caregivers completed the ADHD-Rating Scale-5 to measure their child's attention (far transfer). Statistical analysis will include traditional null hypothesis significance testing and Bayesian methods to quantify evidence for both the null and alternative hypotheses. Data collection concluded in December 2022. Data are currently being processed and analyzed. This trial will determine whether the adaptive approach to setting the difficulty of training activities maximizes cognitive training outcomes for children. This trial has several strengths: it adopts best practices for cognitive training studies (design, methods, and analysis plan); uses a range of measures to detect discrete levels of transfer; has a 6-month postintervention assessment; is appropriately powered; and uses an experimental working memory training intervention based on our current understanding of the cognitive mechanisms of training. Findings will inform future research and design of cognitive training interventions and highlight the value of the evidence-based principles of cognitive training. Australian New Zealand Clinical Trials Registry, ACTRN12621000990820; https://www.anzctr.org.au/ACTRN12621000990820.aspx. DERR1-10.2196/47496.

Assessment of Relationship between Intelligence Quotient and Orthodontic Treatment Need.

Low cognitive ability may reduce the ability to understand the importance of oral health and to perform the necessary practices to maintain proper oral hygiene. Early loss of primary teeth following high caries risk may lead to malocclusion of permanent dentition. This study aimed to evaluate the relationship between the cognitive levels of adolescents and their orthodontic treatment needs. Between January 2018 and May 2018, 200 adolescents aged 10 - 15 who applied to the Pediatric Dentistry Clinic of Marmara University and sought orthodontic treatment were invited to participate in the study. The orthodontic treatment needs of 150 adolescents who agreed to participate were evaluated with the Index of Orthodontic Treatment Need - Aesthetic Component and their cognitive levels were evaluated with the Raven Standard Progressive Matrices (SPM) Test. P-value < 0.05 was considered statistically significant. The mean age (± standard deviation) of 126 adolescents (77 females and 49 males) who completed the SPM test was 11.8 (± 1.3). There was no consistency between the intellectual level and the need for orthodontic treatment (Kappa value = 0.071, p-value = 0.081). There was no correlation between malocclusion severity and intelligence quotient scores of adolescents (ρ [rho] = -0.089, p = 0.322). According to Multiple logistic regression results, there was no difference between 'borderline need' (p = 0.059) and 'great need' (p = 0.881) from 'no need' for orthodontic treatment in adolescents with different intelligence quotients. The results showed no evidence for an association between malocclusion and intelligence quotient.

Adolescents’ fluid intelligence and divergent thinking: the mediating effect of field dependent independent cognitive style

ABSTRACT The current study provided empirical evidence on the mediating effect of field dependent independent cognitive style (FDI) in the association between fluid intelligence (Gf) and divergent thinking (DT) during adolescence. The experiment was carried out with 80 Italian adolescents (meanage = 16.40; SDage = 1.09; rangeage 15–18), who performed Raven’s Standard Progressive Matrices, the Leuven Embedded Figure Test, and the Alternative Uses Task. Results revealed that Gf affected DT through the indirect effect of FDI, suggesting that adolescents’ DT represents a blend of different agents, such as information processing, reasoning, and cognitive strategies, which display different roles during divergent idea generation. Specifically, whereas Gf is essential for evaluating the degree of usability and functionality of new ideas, FDI is necessary for employing and managing Gf skills during the idea generation. Theoretical implications, limitations, and future research directions were discussed.

Relationship between cognitive ability and emotional problems in the context of poverty: a Nigerian adolescent twin study.

Although previous studies have identified negative relationships between cognitive ability and emotional problems (EP), mechanism explaining these relationships remained unclear. This study evaluated two explanatory models using bivariate moderation model-fitting analysis in a twin design. The resilience model suggests that high cognitive ability decreases the risk of EP in adverse settings, and the scarring model suggests that EP symptoms lead to persistent cognitive deficits following onset. The Standard Progressive Matrices Plus (SPM) and EP scale were administered to a sample of 3,202 twins (mean age = 14.62 ± 1.74years) attending public schools in Nigeria. The results of bivariate moderation model-fitting analyses only supported the resilience model. Moderation effects were not significant in the scarring model when genetic and environmental influences were incorporated. The best-fitting bivariate moderation model assuming the resilience model yielded a genetic correlation of - 0.57 (95% CI = -0.40, - 0.84) with no significant environmental correlations. Moreover, the SPM moderated the environmental, not genetic, influences on EP, such that environmental influences were strong when protective factors were absent (low SPM) and weak when these were present (high SPM). These results indicate the need to develop targeted prevention and intervention strategies for EP in adolescents displaying low cognitive ability in deprived settings.

The Efficacy of Creatine Supplementation in Improving Cognitive Performance in Adolescents: A Phase-II, Triple-Blind, Randomized Study Protocol

Background/Aims: Creatine supplementation has demonstrated cognitive benefits in neurodegenerative conditions, having a protective effect in the brain's function in stressful situations, with excellent safety (Watanabe et al., 2002). However, any beneficial effects on the cognitive performance of healthy adolescents underperforming in school is unknown. Our objective is to assess whether creatine supplementation improves cognitive performance in 15- to 17-year-old students with an average school grade below the 50th percentile. Methods: This will be a phase-II, triple-blinded, randomized, parallel-group, superiority, single-center trial. Students with grades below the 50th percentile in the prior semester will be enrolled and randomized to receive juice packages containing either creatine monohydrate supplementation (0.1 mg/kg/day), or placebo, for 12 weeks. The primary outcome will be the mean difference in change of Raven’s Standard Progressive Matrices (RSPM) scores from baseline to week 12 between groups. To achieve a 90% power for detecting a 3-point difference in change in the RSPM score, and accounting for drop-out, 116 participants will be included. Secondary outcomes will include the difference in processing speed (SpaceCode), working memory (SpaceMatrix), non-visual memory (backward digit span), percentage change in lean mass, and any safety events. Conclusion: To our knowledge, this will be the most comprehensive study assessing creatine supple-mentation in adolescents. This is a low-risk intervention that has been shown to improve cognitive function in other populations. This study will potentially support the widespread use of creatine supplementation in adolescents with low school performance, while having a positive impact on this population.

Potential role of vitamin D levels in amyotrophic lateral sclerosis cognitive impairment

Cognitive impairment (CI) is common in amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS): a keystone is identifying factors that could potentially modify the CI course. In recent years, vitamin D is becoming a potential modificatory factor for CI in many neurological disorders. This study aimed to highlight if vitamin D deficiency correlated with CI and clinical features in a cohort of ALS patients. We included 55 ALS patients with a neuropsychological evaluation (classified with the Strong Criteria) and a vitamin D dosage at the diagnosis. We also reviewed medical records and completed data for medical history, physical and neurological examination, and functional scales. At the diagnosis, 30 patients (54%) had CI. Most patients (82%) displayed low vitamin D levels (19.87 ± 9.80 ng/ml). Comparing the vitamin D level between patients with and without CI, we observed significantly lower values in the first group (15.8 ± 8.2 vs. 22.0 ± 9.7 ng/ml, p: 0.04). In the spinal female subgroup (n = 15), we found an inverse correlation between vitamin D and bizarreness score in the cognitive estimates test (r = 0.58; p: 0.04) and a positive correlation with the Corrected Raven’s Standard Progressive Matrices (r = 0.53, p: 0.04). Conversely, in the bulbar female group, we observed a correlation with the corrected direct span (r = 0.84, p: 0.03). With the log-rank survival analysis, we found that the patients with vitamin D < 10 ng/ml had a shorter disease duration (Chi: 5.78, p: 0.02). Our results indicate that levels of vitamin D can influence the cognitive status of people living with ALS and that severe deficits might be an adverse prognostic survival factor.

Seventy years, 1000 samples, and 300,000 SPM scores: A new meta-analysis of Flynn effect patterns

Several studies have investigated and found the gradual rise in IQ over time or the Flynn effect (FE) but inconsistent results on the FEs across types of countries and age groups were reported. The current cross-temporal meta-analysis aimed to examine the temporal correlations between mean IQ scores from Standard Progressive Matrices and year of publication, moderated by types of countries and age groups covering seven decades (1948–2020). The given relationships were weighted by sample sizes. The dataset included 1038 independent samples (N = 299,155) from 72 countries. The results generally supported the FE with the IQ gain of 0.22 points per year, but the magnitudes of the IQ gains depended on types of countries and age groups. Stronger FEs were evident in middle-income countries and younger generations. A multicausal explanatory framework should be utilized to explain the underlying mechanism of the secular IQ gains across factors.

Heroin use and neuropsychological impairments: comparison of intravenous and inhalational use.

Injection and inhalational heroin use are associated with different levels of brain exposure to heroin and its metabolites and differences in the severity of dependence, which might lead to differential impacts on neuropsychological functions. We examined the difference and the magnitude of difference in the neuropsychological functions between inhalational and injection heroin-dependent subjects and also compared them with healthy controls. The study sample comprised three groups: 73 subjects with injection heroin dependence, 74 with inhalational heroin dependence, and 75 healthy controls (HC). We excluded patients with HIV, head injury, epilepsy, and severe mental illness. Neuropsychological assessments were done by Standard Progressive Matrices, Wisconsin Card Sorting Test (WCST), Iowa Gambling Task, Trail-Making Tests A and B (TMT), and Verbal and Visual Memory 1 and 2 Backtests (NBT). We estimated independent effects of the groups on various neuropsychological test parameters, adjusted for age and duration of dependence. In the WCST, the inhalational heroin-dependent group took more trials to complete the first category and had higher scores in the failure to maintain set than controls. The intravenous group had higher total errors than controls in verbal working memory tests and Visual Working Memory 2 Backtest. This group scored higher commission errors in the Verbal 2 Backtest than the controls. The two groups of heroin users differed in failure to maintain set and Verbal Working Memory 2 Backtests. The effect sizes of the group differences were modest. Either route of heroin use is associated with cognitive impairments; inhalational and injection use involve different cognitive domains.

ОТВЕТЫ МЛАДШИХ ШКОЛЬНИКОВ НА ЗАДАНИЯ СТАНДАРТНЫХ ПРОГРЕССИВНЫХ МАТРИЦ РАВЕНА: ЛОГИЧЕСКИЙ И ПСИХОЛОГИЧЕСКИЙ АНАЛИЗ

Background. Questions regarding what exactly is measured by the most popular intelligence test — Raven’s Standard Progressive Matrices (SPM), and how the age-dependent characteristics of thinking process are impacting the performance, are still debatable and insuffi ciently studied. Objective. Th e study had its purpose to reveal the characteristics of the thinking process in the elementary school students, at the age of 7 and 9, engaged in the performance of the SPM tasks. Methods. A three-stage study combining the cross-sectional and longitudinal methods with content analysis of children’s justifi cations for choosing specifi c answers on diff erent test items. Sample. 46 students from Moscow school with an advanced level of complexity (21 boys and 25 girls) took the test twice — in the 1st grade (mean age 7,5 years, range: 6,11–8,0) and in the 3rd grade (mean age 9,6 years, range: 9,0–10,0). Results. Th e analysis of children’s explanations, recorded while they were solving the SPM problems aloud, and the logical analysis of their wrong answers, based on their concordance with the structure of the SPM test, showed that there are not only quantitative, but also qualitative changes in intellectual development of children aged 7 and 9. Conclusion. Th e same mistake made by children of diff erent age might be an indicator of the diff erent levels of their intellectual abilities. Th e diff erent ways they use to solve the SPM tasks might be due to the qualitatively diff erent thinking processes, characteristic for a certain age. Th erefore, the results obtained by means of SPM test must be supplemented with the qualitative analysis of wrong answers in order to assess the true level of mental abilities of a child at the elementary school level.

INTELLECTUAL AND PERSONAL DEVELOPMENT IN CHILDREN OF PRIMARY SCHOOL AGE

The relevance of this work due to the concern of the pedagogical and psychological community with the diffi culties in teaching modern children. Comparison of the results of studies of different years made it possible to see the main characteristics of intellectual and personal development of a modern student. The purpose of the study was to compare the mental and personal development of students in grade  with a difference of  years. Research methods and sample. The study was conducted using the “Creative Field” method (D.B. Bogoyavlenskaya) and the “Standard Progressive Matrices” test by J. Raven. The sample included  people:  people in  and  people in -. The main results indicated that it is more diffi cult for modern second-graders to master new activities. Raven’s test also showed a decrease in average intelligence indices among modern schoolchildren. At the same time, their level of sensorimotor coordination did not differ from their peers  years ago. We also observed a decrease in cognitive motivation. Modern children demonstrated almost no ability to develop activities on their own initiative. Conclusion. The analysis shows a trend towards a decrease in the general characteristics of thinking in modern children of primary school age. It is more diffi cult for them to preserve the mode of action, to transfer it to new conditions (spatial and metric), to generalize action in the absence of a difference in the level of sensorimotor coordination. The most important change is at the motivation-need level, which leads to a decrease in the ability to be creative. The revealed differences probably need to be assessed in terms of social infl uences. The obtained data allow us to speak about the social situation of a child’s development  years ago as of more favorable than today.