Standard Imaging Techniques Research Articles

A Review of Imaging Methods and Recent Nanoparticles for Breast Cancer Diagnosis

Breast cancer is the foremost common cause of death in women, and its early diagnosis will help treat and increase patients’ survival. This review article aims to look at the studies on the recent findings of standard imaging techniques and their characteristics for breast cancer diagnosis as well as on the recent role of nanoparticles (NPs) that are used for breast cancer detection. Herein, a search was performed in the literature through scientific citation websites, including Google Scholar, PubMed, Scopus, and Web of Science, until May 2023. A comprehensive review of different imaging modalities and NPs for breast cancer diagnosis is given, and the successes, challenges, and limitations of these methods are discussed.

CAD-RADS scoring of coronary CT angiography with Multi-Axis Vision Transformer: A clinically-inspired deep learning pipeline

Background and objectiveThe standard non-invasive imaging technique used to assess the severity and extent of Coronary Artery Disease (CAD) is Coronary Computed Tomography Angiography (CCTA). However, manual grading of each patient's CCTA according to the CAD-Reporting and Data System (CAD-RADS) scoring is time-consuming and operator-dependent, especially in borderline cases. This work proposes a fully automated, and visually explainable, deep learning pipeline to be used as a decision support system for the CAD screening procedure. The pipeline performs two classification tasks: firstly, identifying patients who require further clinical investigations and secondly, classifying patients into subgroups based on the degree of stenosis, according to commonly used CAD-RADS thresholds. MethodsThe pipeline pre-processes multiplanar projections of the coronary arteries, extracted from the original CCTAs, and classifies them using a fine-tuned Multi-Axis Vision Transformer architecture. With the aim of emulating the current clinical practice, the model is trained to assign a per-patient score by stacking the bi-dimensional longitudinal cross-sections of the three main coronary arteries along channel dimension. Furthermore, it generates visually interpretable maps to assess the reliability of the predictions. ResultsWhen run on a database of 1873 three-channel images of 253 patients collected at the Monzino Cardiology Center in Milan, the pipeline obtained an AUC of 0.87 and 0.93 for the two classification tasks, respectively. ConclusionAccording to our knowledge, this is the first model trained to assign CAD-RADS scores learning solely from patient scores and not requiring finer imaging annotation steps that are not part of the clinical routine.

The Application of Artificial Intelligence (AI)-Based Ultrasound for the Diagnosis of Fatty Liver Disease: A Systematic Review.

Fatty liver disease, also known as hepatic steatosis, poses a significant global health concern due to the excessive accumulation of fat within the liver. If left untreated, this condition can give rise to severe complications. Recent advances in artificial intelligence (AI, specifically AI-based ultrasound imaging) offer promising tools for diagnosing this condition. This review endeavors to explore the current state of research concerning AI's role in diagnosing fatty liver disease, with a particular emphasis on imaging methods. To this end, a comprehensive search was conducted across electronic databases, including Google Scholar and Embase, to identify relevant studies published between January 2010 and May 2023, with keywords such as "fatty liver disease" and "artificial intelligence (AI)." The article selection process adhered to the PRISMA framework, ultimately resulting in the inclusion of 13 studies. These studies leveraged AI-assisted ultrasound due to its accessibility and cost-effectiveness, and they hailed from diverse countries, including India, China, Singapore, the United States, Egypt, Iran, Poland, Malaysia, and Korea. These studies employed a variety of AI classifiers, such as support vector machines, convolutional neural networks, multilayer perceptron, fuzzy Sugeno, and probabilistic neural networks, all of which demonstrated a remarkable level of precision. Notably, one study even achieved a diagnostic accuracy rate of 100%, underscoring AI's potential in diagnosing fatty liver disease. Nevertheless, the review acknowledged certain limitations within the included studies, with the majority featuring relatively small sample sizes, often encompassing fewer than 100 patients. Additionally, the variability in AI algorithms and imaging techniques added complexity to the comparative analysis. In conclusion, this review emphasizes the potential of AI in enhancing the diagnosis and management of fatty liver disease through advanced imaging techniques. Future research endeavors should prioritize the execution of large-scale studies that employ standardized AI algorithms and imaging techniques to validate AI's utility in diagnosing this prevalent health condition.

Transparent Intracellular Sensing Platform with Si Needles for Simultaneous Live Imaging.

Vertically ordered Si needles are of particular interest for long-term intracellular recording owing to their capacity to infiltrate living cells with negligible damage and minimal toxicity. Such intracellular recordings could greatly benefit from simultaneous live cell imaging without disrupting their culture, contributing to an in-depth understanding of cellular function and activity. However, the use of standard live imaging techniques, such as inverted and confocal microscopy, is currently impeded by the opacity of Si wafers, typically employed for fabricating vertical Si needles. Here, we introduce a transparent intracellular sensing platform that combines vertical Si needles with a percolated network of Au-Ag nanowires on a transparent elastomeric substrate. This sensing platform meets all prerequisites for simultaneous intracellular recording and imaging, including electrochemical impedance, optical transparency, mechanical compliance, and cell viability. Proof-of-concept demonstrations of this sensing platform include monitoring electrical potentials in cardiomyocyte cells and in three-dimensionally engineered cardiovascular tissue, all while conducting live imaging with inverted and confocal microscopes. This sensing platform holds wide-ranging potential applications for intracellular research across various disciplines such as neuroscience, cardiology, muscle physiology, and drug screening.

The Depiction of Hypertension in Heart Imaging Examinations: An Up-to-Date Review of the Evidence.

Hypertension is one of the main preventable cardiovascular (CV) risk factors all over the years, closely related to CV morbidity and mortality. One of the most common hypertensive target organ damages is hypertensive heart disease (HHD), including left ventricular hypertrophy, which progresses gradually and leads to systolic or diastolic dysfunction of the left ventricular, and finally to end-stage heart failure. Regarding its prevalence and the need for early diagnosis, assessment of heart imaging examination is of major importance. Echocardiography has been used as the standard imaging technique to evaluate HHD for years, providing an accurate evaluation of the left ventricular geometry, along with the systolic and diastolic function. However, nowadays there is a growing interest in cardiovascular magnetic resonance (CMR). Despite the importance of the use of echocardiography in everyday clinical practice, numerous studies have shown the superiority of CMR as an imaging technique for clinical and research purposes, mainly due to its strength to provide an unlimited area of view, as well as the identification and quantification of the type and extent of myocardial fibrosis. Hence, this review aims to analyze the importance of heart imaging in the hypertensive population, with a special interest in CMR imaging.

Integrating IoT and Novel Approaches to Enhance Electromagnetic Image Quality using Modern Anisotropic Diffusion and Speckle Noise Reduction Techniques

Electromagnetic imaging is becoming more important in many sectors, and this requires high-quality pictures for reliable analysis. This study makes use of the complementary relationship between IoT and current image processing methods to improve the quality of electromagnetic images. The research presents a new framework for connecting Internet of Things sensors to imaging equipment, allowing for instantaneous input and adjustment. At the same time, the suggested system makes use of sophisticated anisotropic diffusion algorithms to bring out key details and hide noise in electromagnetic pictures. In addition, a cutting-edge technique for reducing speckle noise is used to combat this persistent issue in electromagnetic imaging. The effectiveness of the suggested system was determined via a comparison to standard imaging techniques. There was a noticeable improvement in visual sharpness, contrast, and overall clarity without any loss of information, as shown by the results. Incorporating IoT sensors also facilitated faster calibration and real-time modifications, which opened up new possibilities for use in contexts with a high degree of variation. In fields where electromagnetic imaging plays a crucial role, such as medicine, remote sensing, and aerospace, the ramifications of this study are far-reaching. Our research demonstrates how the Internet of Things (IoT) and cutting-edge image processing have the potential to dramatically improve the functionality and versatility of electromagnetic imaging systems.

Relationship between MRI Findings and Urodynamic Parameters in Patients with Multiple Sclerosis: Prediction of Upper Urinary Tract Damage?

Lower urinary tract dysfunction is frequently observed in individuals with multiple sclerosis (MS), significantly impacting their quality of life and increasing the risk of upper urinary tract (UUT) damage. Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) serves as the gold standard imaging technique for identifying demyelinating lesions and aiding in the clinical diagnosis of MS. However, despite its diagnostic utility, the precise relationship between MRI lesions and bladder dysfunction remains poorly established. We aimed to examine the correlation between MRI lesion localizations and both urodynamic parameters and risk factors for UUT damage. In this retrospective study, we conducted a comprehensive review of 201 patients diagnosed with MS who were referred for primary neurourological evaluation, including a videourodynamic study (VUDS). To explore potential significant relationships between the independent variable of MRI lesion localization and the dependent outcome variables, we conducted a multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) regression. A significant correlation was observed between the presence of a brainstem lesion and specific urodynamic parameters, including lower maximum cystometric bladder capacity and higher bladder compliance. Similarly, an increased number of diverse MRI lesion localizations demonstrated a significant correlation with these urodynamic parameters. In conclusion, MRI findings did not exhibit a significant association with urodynamic risk factors for UUT damage, thereby limiting their utility in stratifying MS patients for subsequent neurourological assessment and treatment.

Fuchs endothelial corneal dystrophy masking an underlying postrefractive surgery ectasia

Introduction: This article describes a case presenting Fuchs endothelial corneal dystrophy (FECD) masking an underlying postrefractive surgery ectasia. Patient and Clinical Findings: A 69-year-old woman presented in January 2022 with blurriness, halos, and glare in the left eye. Ocular history included a photorefractive keratectomy performed twice in her left eye in 2007 for hyperopic astigmatism. A diagnosis of asymptomatic Fuchs dystrophy was noted in 2010. She had acute decompensation of the cornea in the left eye because of FECD, and the first Descemet-stripping automated endothelial keratoplasty (DSAEK) with cataract surgery was performed in 2018. Diagnosis, Intervention, and Clinical Findings: The patient had a failed DSAEK graft in the left eye. A repeat DSAEK was performed in 2022, and 6 months postoperatively, the patient started showing signs of ectasia in the left eye. The authors believe the ectasia was preexisting but masked by the failed DSAEK graft and FECD and started showing after corneal deturgescence postoperatively. Conclusions: The presence of FECD and corneal ectasia can complicate diagnosis because of overlapping clinical and topographic features. This case highlights the importance of preoperative topography with epithelial/stromal thickness mapping in patients with a history of multiple refractive corneal procedures to consider the possibility of ectasia and prevent unforeseen outcomes and complications. Further research is necessary to determine standardized imaging techniques, particularly in cases of concurrent diseases.

Plantar Fasciitis: An Updated Review.

Plantar fasciitis (PF) is a common musculoskeletal disease. Histologic findings of patients with PF showed mainly chronic degenerative processes rather than inflammation. In addition to mechanical factors, such as repetitive stress and reduced ankle dorsiflexion, PF is also linked to rheumatologic diseases and genetic factors. Ultrasound is becoming a standard imaging technique for assessing PF. Major sonographic findings included increased plantar fascia thickness and hypoechoic plantar fascia. In addition to traditional B-mode ultrasound, sonoelastography can also be utilized to diagnose PF. Ultrasound can also be used to guide therapeutic interventions. Over 80% of patients with PF improved under nonsurgical treatment. Treatment options for PF include physical therapy, modalities (laser, therapeutic ultrasound), extracorporeal shock wave therapy (ESWT), injections, transcatheter arterial embolization, and surgery. For injections, corticosteroid was mostly used in the past but has been replaced gradually by other techniques such as platelet-rich plasma or dextrose prolotherapy. There is also more and more evidence about ESWT in treating PF. Surgery serves as an option for recalcitrant PF cases, and endoscopic fasciotomy seemed to have good outcomes. Ultrasound plays an important role in diagnosing of PF and evaluating the treatment effect, and the use of sonoelastography in addition to traditional B-mode ultrasound may help in the early detection of PF and assessment of the treatment effect.

Detecting bifurcations in 2D periodic metamaterials from images

Architectured materials are often used for their high strength-to-weight ratio. For this matter, they are designed with high porosity which makes them sensitive to buckling under compressive loading. This buckling is usually predicted by numerical computations but very few experiments are available to confront these numerical results. Experimentally, the onset of instabilities is usually determined by following the global force applied onto the sample. However, this detection might be hindered by the presence of various defects which may locally trigger the instabilities. A very simple technique is proposed herein to detect instabilities in periodic architectured materials using standard imaging techniques. It is shown to be applicable at a local scale, thereby allowing for a local instability detection.

Correlative Imaging of Three-Dimensional Cell Culture on Opaque Bioscaffolds for Tissue Engineering Applications.

Three-dimensional (3D) tissue engineering (TE) is a prospective treatment that can be used to restore or replace damaged musculoskeletal tissues, such as articular cartilage. However, current challenges in TE include identifying materials that are biocompatible and have properties that closely match the mechanical properties and cellular microenvironment of the target tissue. Visualization and analysis of potential 3D porous scaffolds as well as the associated cell growth and proliferation characteristics present additional problems. This is particularly challenging for opaque scaffolds using standard optical imaging techniques. Here, we use graphene foam (GF) as a 3D porous biocompatible substrate, which is scalable, reproducible, and a suitable environment for ATDC5 cell growth and chondrogenic differentiation. ATDC5 cells are cultured, maintained, and stained with a combination of fluorophores and gold nanoparticles to enable correlative microscopic characterization techniques, which elucidate the effect of GF properties on cell behavior in a 3D environment. Most importantly, the staining protocol allows for direct imaging of cell growth and proliferation on opaque scaffolds using X-ray MicroCT, including imaging growth of cells within the hollow GF branches, which is not possible with standard fluorescence and electron microscopy techniques.

Estimating follow-up CTs from geometric deformations of catheter implants in interstitial breast brachytherapy: A feasibility study using electromagnetic tracking.

Electromagnetic tracking (EMT) systems have been shown to provide valuable information on the geometry of catheter implants in breast cancer patients undergoing interstitial brachytherapy (iBT). In the context of an extended patient-specific, pre-treatment verification, EMT can play a key role in determining the potential need and, if applicable, the appropriate time for treatment adaptation. To detect dosimetric shortcomings the relative position between catheters, and target volume and critical structures must be known. Since EMT cannot provide the anatomical context and standard imaging techniques such as cone-beam CT are not yet available in most brachytherapy suites, it is not possible to detect anatomic changes on a daily or fraction basis, so the need for adaptive planning cannot be identified. The aim of this feasibility study is to develop and evaluate a technique capable of estimating follow-up CTs at any time based on the initial treatment planning CT (PCT) and surrogate information about changes of the implant geometry from an EMT system. A deformation vector field is calculated from two different implant reconstructions acquired in treatment position through EMT, the first immediately after the PCT and the second at another time point during the course of treatment. The calculation is based on discrete displacement vectors of pairs of control and target points. These are extrapolated by means of different radial basis functions in order to cover the entire CT volume. The adequate parameters for the calculation of the deformation field were identified. By warping the PCT according to the deformation field, one obtains an estimated CT (ECT) that reflects the geometric changes. For the proof of concept, ECTs were computed for the time point of the clinical follow-up CT (FCT) that is embedded in the treatment workflow after the fourth fraction. ECT and clinical FCTs of 20 patients were compared to each other quantitatively in terms of absolute Hounsfield unit differences in the planning target volume (PTV) and in a convex hull (CH) enclosing the catheters. The median differences were 31.2 and 29.5HU for the CH and the PTV, respectively. The proposed ECT approach was able to approximate the "anatomy of the day" and therefore, in principle, allows a dosimetric appraisal of the treatment plan quality before each fraction. In this way, it can contribute to a more detailed patient-specific quality assurance in iBT of the breast and help to identify the timing for a potential treatment adaptation.

Olfaction unraveled: Anatomy, dysfunctions and implications for health and sensory perception

This review addresses the fundamental role of smell in human life, including its function in detecting odors, influencing personal preferences, and social behaviors. The article discusses the anatomy of the olfactory system, covering the structures involved in olfactory detection and processing. The evaluation of olfactory function is explored using different approaches, such as standardized tests, clinical examinations, and imaging techniques, which allow an accurate assessment of olfactory capacity and assist in the diagnosis of olfactory-related disorders. Additionally, conditions such as anosmia and dysosmia are addressed, investigating their causes, impacts, and diagnostic methods. Anosmia may be due to lesions in the olfactory structures or underlying medical conditions, while dysosmias involve qualitative alterations in the perception of smell. The article also discusses the prevalence of olfactory alterations in different contexts, including the COVID-19 pandemic, which has shown association with temporary or persistent loss of smell. Finally, the importance of advancing research in this area for a thorough understanding of the pathophysiology of olfactory alterations is emphasized. This understanding is critical for the development of personalized and effective therapeutic strategies. Collaboration between researchers and healthcare professionals is essential to drive scientific and clinical advances related to this topic. It is hoped that this review will provide a comprehensive overview of olfaction, contributing to a better understanding of olfactory mechanisms and supporting more effective clinical approaches to the diagnosis and treatment of olfactory disorders.

Cardiac magnetic resonance imaging for preprocedural planning of percutaneous left atrial appendage closure.

Percutaneous closure of the left atrial appendage (LAA) facilitates stroke prevention in patients with atrial fibrillation. Optimal device selection and positioning are often challenging due to highly variable LAA shape and dimension and thus require accurate assessment of the respective anatomy. Transesophageal echocardiography (TEE) and x-ray fluoroscopy (XR) represent the gold standard imaging techniques. However, device underestimation has frequently been observed. Assessment based on 3-dimensional computer tomography (CTA) has been reported as more accurate but increases radiation and contrast agent burden. In this study, the use of non-contrast-enhanced cardiac magnetic resonance imaging (CMR) to support preprocedural planning for LAA closure (LAAc) was investigated. CMR was performed in thirteen patients prior to LAAc. Based on the 3-dimensional CMR image data, the dimensions of the LAA were quantified and optimal C-arm angulations were determined and compared to periprocedural data. Quantitative figures used for evaluation of the technique comprised the maximum diameter, the diameter derived from perimeter and the area of the landing zone of the LAA. Perimeter- and area-based diameters derived from preprocedural CMR showed excellent congruency compared to those measured periprocedurally by XR, whereas the respective maximum diameter resulted in significant overestimation (p < 0.05). Compared to TEE assessment, CMR-derived diameters resulted in significantly larger dimensions (p < 0.05). The deviation of the maximum diameter to the diameters measured by XR and TEE correlated well with the ovality of the LAA. C-arm angulations used during the procedures were in agreement with those determined by CMR in case of circular LAA. This small pilot study demonstrates the potential of non-contrast-enhanced CMR to support preprocedural planning of LAAc. Diameter measurements based on LAA area and perimeter correlated well with the actual device selection parameters. CMR-derived determination of landing zones facilitated accurate C-arm angulation for optimal device positioning.

Radiation dose reduction using spectral shaping in pediatric non-contrast sinus CT.

CT is the standard imaging technique to evaluate pediatric sinuses. Given the potential risks of radiation exposure in children, it is important to reduce pediatric CT dose and maintain image quality. To study the utility of spectral shaping with tin filtration to improve dose efficiency for pediatric sinus CT exams. A head phantom was scanned on a commercial dual-source CT using a conventional protocol (120kV) and a proposed 100kV with a 0.4-mm tin filter (Sn100 kV) protocol for comparison. Entrance point dose (EPD) of eye and parotid gland region was measured by an ion chamber. Sixty pediatric sinus CT exams (33 acquired with 120kV, 27 acquired with Sn100 kV) were retrospectively collected. All patient images were objectively measured for image quality and blindly reviewed by 4 pediatric neuroradiologists for overall noise, overall diagnostic quality, and delineation of 4 critical paranasal sinus structures, using a 5-point Likert scale. Phantom CTDIvol from Sn100 kV is 4.35mGy, compared to CTDIvol of 5.73mGy from 120kV at an identical noise level. EPD of sensitive organs decreases in Sn100 kV (e.g., right eye EPD 3.83±0.42mGy), compared to 120kV (5.26±0.24mGy). Patients in the 2 protocol groups were age and weight (unpaired T test P>0.05) matched. The patient CTDIvol of Sn100 kV (4.45±0.47mGy) is significantly lower than 120kV (5.56±0.48mGy, unpaired T test P<0.001). No statistically significant difference for any subjective readers' score (Wilcoxon test P>0.05) was found between the two groups, indicating proposed spectral shaping provides equivalent diagnostic image quality. Phantom and patient results demonstrate that spectral shaping can significantly reduce radiation dose for non-contrast pediatric sinus CT without compromising diagnostic quality.

Toward Single Particle Reconstruction without Particle Picking: Breaking the Detection Limit.

Single-particle cryo-electron microscopy (cryo-EM) has recently joined X-ray crystallography and NMR spectroscopy as a high-resolution structural method to resolve biological macromolecules. In a cryo-EM experiment, the microscope produces images called micrographs. Projections of the molecule of interest are embedded in the micrographs at unknown locations, and under unknown viewing directions. Standard imaging techniques first locate these projections (detection) and then reconstruct the 3-D structure from them. Unfortunately, high noise levels hinder detection. When reliable detection is rendered impossible, the standard techniques fail. This is a problem, especially for small molecules. In this paper, we pursue a radically different approach: we contend that the structure could, in principle, be reconstructed directly from the micrographs, without intermediate detection. The aim is to bring small molecules within reach for cryo-EM. To this end, we design an autocorrelation analysis technique that allows one to go directly from the micrographs to the sought structures. This involves only one pass over the micrographs, allowing online, streaming processing for large experiments. We show numerical results and discuss challenges that lay ahead to turn this proof-of-concept into a complementary approach to state-of-the-art algorithms.

Nerve sheath myxoma masqueraded as intramuscular myxoma: an extremely rare tumor with unusual location - a case report and literature review.

The authors present the first reported case of NSM in the anterior tibialis muscle in a 39-year-old man presented as deep swelling in the left leg. NSM is difficult to diagnose clinically or using standard imaging techniques; MRI and ultrasonography cannot differentiate it from other anomalies. Histopathology alone is not enough to distinguish NSM from neurothekeomas, which were considered synonymous in the past. They can be distinguished by using immunohistochemical markers. Soft tissue tumors in lower extremity muscles are somewhat difficult to diagnose. Excision of the tumor by a specialized orthopedic surgeon and histopathological/immunohistochemical analysis were the only avenues to correctly diagnose the NSM.

Advancing Risk Stratification of Coronary Artery Aneurysms Caused by Kawasaki Disease Using Hemodynamics Analysis and Computational Fluid Dynamics

This article reviews previous studies on the risk assessment of coronary artery aneurysms (CAA) caused by Kawasaki disease (KD) using the computational fluid dynamics (CFD) simulation. Patient-specific CFD is an emerging tool that provides detailed three-dimensional hemodynamic information, not available from current standard imaging techniques or invasive measures. The reviewed CFD studies on KD CAA used Computed Tomography (CT) or Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) images to reconstruct the three-dimensional anatomical geometry consisting of the aorta and coronary arteries. On the inlet and outlet of the anatomical model, physiologic boundary conditions were prescribed to match the measured patient-specific blood pressure or flow data, supplemented by physiologic rules informed by population studies. Hemodynamic variables such as the blood velocity, wall shear stress, oscillatory shear index, fractional flow reserve, and particle residence time, were then quantified from the simulation results. The studies reviewed revealed strong correlations between these hemodynamic parameters and clinical outcomes, suggesting that hemodynamic metrics could be useful for treatment planning for KD patients. We discuss the limitations of the reviewed studies including small sample sizes, a narrow focus on thrombosis, and the use of different imaging modalities. The article suggests future research directions for CFD studies of KD that address these limitations.

Aktueller Stand und zukünftige Entwicklungen der optischen Kohärenz-Tomographie

Purpose. Optical coherence tomography has become a standard non-invasive imaging technique for the examination of the eye. In recent years, there have been advancements in previous systems, but new technological approaches could promote further expansion. Material and Methods. Based on a literature review and own research activities, current status and future developments in the field of optical coherence tomography are summarised. Special attention is given to the possibilities for cost reduction in manufacturing. Results. Current technologies in the field of computer sciences can adapt the current systems in sub-areas in such a way that a more cost-effective production seems possible and can lead to improved health care through the higher number of installed systems. Conclusion. The approaches outlined appear promising for achieving the goal of widespread use of optical coherence tomography. However, due to the typical research and de- velopment durations of medical devices, the realization will only be possible in the next few years. Keywords optical coherence tomography, time domain, frequency domain, imaging, optical technologies

Imaging Methods to Quantify the Chest and Trunk Deformation in Adolescent Idiopathic Scoliosis: A Literature Review.

Background context: Scoliosis is a three-dimensional deformity of the spine with the most prevalent type being adolescent idiopathic scoliosis (AIS). The rotational spinal deformation leads to displacement and deformation of the ribs, resulting in a deformity of the entire chest. Routine diagnostic imaging is performed in order to define its etiology, measure curve severity and progression during growth, and for treatment planning. To date, all treatment recommendations are based on spinal parameters, while the esthetic concerns and cardiopulmonary symptoms of patients are mostly related to the trunk deformation. For this reason, there is a need for diagnostic imaging of the patho-anatomical changes of the chest and trunk in AIS. Aim: The aim of this review is to provide an overview, as complete as possible, of imaging modalities, methods and image processing techniques for assessment of chest and trunk deformation in AIS. Methods: Here, we present a narrative literature review of (1) image acquisition techniques used in clinical practice, (2) a description of various relevant methods to measure the deformity of the thorax in patients with AIS, and (3) different image processing techniques useful for quantifying 3D chest wall deformity. Results: Various ionizing and non-ionizing imaging modalities are available, but radiography is most widely used for AIS follow-up. A disadvantage is that these images are only acquired in 2D and are not effective for acquiring detailed information on complex 3D chest deformities. While CT is the gold standard 3D imaging technique for assessment of in vivo morphology of osseous structures, it is rarely obtained for surgical planning because of concerns about radiation exposure and increased risk of cancer during later life. Therefore, different modalities with less or without radiation, such as biplanar radiography and MRI are usually preferred. Recently, there have been advances in the field of image processing for measurements of the chest: Anatomical segmentations have become fully automatic and deep learning has been shown to be able to automatically perform measurements and even outperform experts in terms of accuracy. Conclusions: Recent advancements in imaging modalities and image processing techniques make complex 3D evaluation of chest deformation possible. Before introduction into daily clinical practice, however, there is a need for studies correlating image-based chest deformation parameters to patient-reported outcomes, and for technological advancements to make the workflow cost-effective.