Victims Of Stalking Research Articles

Intimate Partner Stalking among College Students: Examining Situational Contexts Related to Police Notification

A nontrivial percentage of men and women report being stalked in their lifetime, and many of these experiences were perpetrated by a current or former intimate partner. This study seeks to better understand the situational contexts of this social phenomenon among a high-risk population - college students - and explores how elements of the situational context of intimate partner stalking relate to police notification.Using data from college students attending 24 universities in the United States, logistic regression analyses are supplemented with conjunctive analyses of case configurations (CACC), which allow for the construction of situational contexts of intimate partner stalking and a comparison of contexts that are and are not reported to the police.Overall, police notification for intimate partner stalking is low (6%). Logistic regression analyses revealed that multiple types of stalking victimization and interference with activities are related to an increased likelihood of police notification. CACC indicated that the relevance of interference with activities is dependent upon self-reporting that the victimization resulted in an intimidating environment. Furthermore, multiple types of stalking victimizations and co-occurring victimizations (i.e., physical violence, sexual violence, and coercive control) are related to police notification if the victim also reports interference with activities and an intimidating environment. These relationships are driven by White, non-Hispanic women who live off-campus.Our dual analytical approach highlights the complementary use of traditional regression methods and CACC. These results provide insight for efforts to assist victims of intimate partner stalking in order to encourage police notification.

Who Are the Stalking Victims? Exploring the Victimization Experiences and Psychosocial Characteristics of Young Male and Female Adults in Hong Kong.

Most stalking studies are conducted in the West. Limited information is available on victims of stalking from the Asian continent. This study specifically explored the victimization experiences of young male and female adults in Hong Kong. Using a large sample of university students (N = 2,496) aged between 18 and 40 years, the gender distribution of stalking incident characteristics was examined, along with prevalence of various stalking behaviors, and victim-offender relationships by types of stalking behaviors. The differential role of demographic and psychosocial characteristics in stalking victimization experience was also explored. The lifetime prevalence rate of stalking victimization was 8.2%, with a higher estimate in females than males (11.6% vs. 3.8%). The sample analyzed in this study was 196 stalking victims. Although surveillance-oriented behaviors were most frequently reported by both males and females, significant gender differences in types of stalking behaviors were noted. Multivariate analyses indicated that increases in age and levels of self-esteem were correlated with an increased probability of experiencing stalking victimization, while being a male and higher levels of life satisfaction were related to a lower likelihood of falling prey to stalking victimization. This study concludes with a call for anti-stalking legislation in Hong Kong given the devastating nature and consequences of stalking victimization.

Health Care Professionals' Knowledge of Stalking Perpetrators, Victims, Behaviors, and Coping Strategies: A Preliminary Study among Italian Hospitals.

The aim of this study was to investigate health care professionals' level of in-depth understanding about the various types and characteristics of stalking. In particular, the study examines knowledge on the characteristics of stalkers and their victims, acted behaviors, and coping strategies used to stop the harassment. The data were collected by means of an ad hoc questionnaire. The sample comprised 210 participants working in local health units in Turin, a large city located in the northern part of Italy. The majority were women (160, 76.2%). The participants were aged 20–64 years, and the mean age was 41.63 years (SD = 11.18). The majority of participants were psychologists (99, 47.1%), 31 (14.8%) were nurses, 31 (14.8%) had an unspecified medical profession, 29 (13.8%) were psychiatrists, and 20 (9.5%) were general practitioners. According to the findings, interventions with male victims of stalking, especially when the stalker is a woman, require attention in particular. Underestimating the stalking experience is a risk, so health care professionals in their interventions must explain to the men the emotive and physical consequences of the victimization. Moreover, in suggesting coping strategies, health care professionals must consider the victim's fear of reporting the incident not only to law enforcement authorities but also to family and friends. The findings showed that health care professionals need a better understanding of the stalking phenomenon. Education courses are a valuable tool to identify characteristics of the phenomenon, validate existing knowledge, and decrease the level of missing information to develop the skills needed to take appropriate action in cases of stalking.

Low Self-control, Harassment Perpetration, and Stalking Victimization among Asian College Students

ABSTRACT A sizable amount of research has empirically tested Gottfredson and Hirschi’s general theory of crime, with results showing that low self-control is an important correlate of offending, analogous behaviors, and victimization. Within this line of research however, less attention has been paid toward examining the generality of their theory within the race/ethnicity space as well as the extent to which the theory offers a useful framework for understanding harassment and stalking. In this paper, we use data from a sample of young adult Asian Americans to examine these outcomes. Unlike prior research, we do not detect any relationship between low self-control on harassment or stalking. Implications and directions for future research are outlined.

Pain in the Acute Aftermath of Stalking: Associations With Posttraumatic Stress Symptoms, Depressive Symptoms, and Posttraumatic Cognitions.

This longitudinal study examined whether posttraumatic stress and depressive symptoms, posttraumatic cognitions, and ongoing cyberstalking exposures were independently associated with changes in pain outcomes among 82 young adult women with recent exposure to stalking. Multilevel models indicated that higher sensory pain intensity and pain-related interference were associated with more negative cognitions about the self. Higher affective pain intensity was associated with higher posttraumatic stress and depressive symptoms. Cyberstalking exposures were not associated with pain intensity or pain-related interference. Results reveal persistent pain complaints in recent stalking victims and highlight distinct psychological risk factors for pain intensity and pain-related interference.

Longitudinal Associations of Binge Drinking with Interpersonal Violence Among Adolescents.

Binge drinking may be associated with adolescents' experience of multiple types of interpersonal violence perpetration and victimization, and if so, could be a malleable intervention target to prevent interpersonal violence. The current article explores the between- and within-person associations of binge drinking (i.e., 4/5 or more drinks in a row for girls/boys) with interpersonal violence among adolescents (N = 1322, 50.3% girls/women, 88.9% White/non-Hispanic, 85.9% heterosexual, 18.6% free/reduced lunch, aged 13-19) using a longitudinal design (three waves of data collection across more than a year). Overall, adolescents who engaged in binge drinking at more time points were more likely to perpetrate sexual harassment and stalking, and more likely to be victims of stalking and dating violence. At time points when adolescents had engaged in binge drinking in the past month, they were more likely to perpetrate dating violence, less likely to perpetrate stalking, and more likely to be sexual harassment victims. Addressing binge drinking in prevention programs may reduce some forms of interpersonal violence.

Male stalking victimization: prevalence, characteristics and impact

Introduction: Men are more likely than women to engage as perpetrators of violent crime [1]. Male victimization has remained under-researched and only more recently had received scientific interest (e.g., intimate partner victimization) [2]. Likewise, stalking has been characterized by a high number of women involved as victims and men involved as perpetrators [3], being recognized as a gender crime against women in the Istanbul Convention [4]. Research on perceptions of stalking has revealed that male stalking victimization is considered less concerning and less dangerous than female victimization and that males should be able to control their own stalking experience [1]. This study aimed to identify the prevalence, characteristics and impact of stalking victimization in Portuguese men. Helpseeking behaviors are also analyses. Materials and methods: We used a subsample composed for 570 men, retrieved from of a representative national sample inquired about stalking victimization. The participants were a mean age of 43.78 (DP = 17.99), were mostly married (51%) and employed (71%). The Stalking Victimization Inventory was developed to assess stalking victimization and associated features. The inventory included 23 items, organized in five sections, namely sociodemographic characterization, prevalence of stalking victimization, behaviors and dynamics, impact, and helpseeking sources. To guarantee that participants understood the focus of the study, data were collected through face-to-face interviews, conducted all over the country, during three months. Results: The lifetime prevalence of stalking in men was 13.6% (n=?). The stalker was mostly perpetrated by a woman (75%), without any intimate relationship (former or actual) in 62% and by an intimate partner in 38% of the cases. The participants were victims of a diversity of stalking behaviours (M = 3.48; DP = 2.07). For the majority stalking lasted more than a month (71%) and, in the most intense phase, stalker attacks occurred daily or weekly (86%). The majority (80.8%) reported that stalking behaviours negatively affected some area of their individual functioning, with intimate relationships and psychological health being the most affected (57% and 54%, respectively). A hierarchical linear regression allowed to identify as significant independent predictors of greater impact the sex of the stalker (being male, B = - 3.87, 95%CI [-7,15,.619]), a higher diversity of stalking behaviours suffered (B = .94, 95%CI [.24, 1.63]) and to feel fear as a consequence of the stalking victimization (B = 7.11, 95%CI [2.68, 11.52]). Despite this, only 25.4% of the victims sought some kind of support to cope with stalking victimization. Discussion and conclusions: The results show that stalking against men in Portugal should deserve more attention, namely because it has an impact on different areas and well-being of victims. Victim support institutions and judicial entities should ensure gender neutral support services in order to adequate response to the needs of male victims.

Prevalence and sociodemographic factors associated with stalking victimization among college students

Objective: This study’s purpose was to examine the prevalence and sociodemographic factors associated with stalking victimization among a diverse sample of college students. Participants: Data were collected through a cross-sectional survey administered in November 2015 to students 18 and older on 8 academic universities in a Southwestern university system (N = 26,417). Methods: Descriptive statistics were used to assess the prevalence of stalking experiences across student populations. Multivariate logistic regression was used to examine associations between sociodemographic factors and stalking victimization. Results: A total of 17.4% of students reported stalking victimization since entering college. Cisgender females, transgender/gender-nonconforming, and sexual minority students had higher odds of stalking victimization than their counterparts, whereas Latino/a students had lower odds of stalking victimization compared to White nonHispanic students. Conclusions: A notable proportion of college students have experienced stalking. Disparities found among student populations are concerning and warrant further investigation.

Stalking victimization in Portugal: Prevalence, characteristics, and impact

Although the prevalence and associated features of stalking are well known in some countries, in many others, including Portugal, the experiences of stalking victims have remained unexplored until recently. This study aimed to identify the prevalence, characteristics, and impact of stalking victimization within a Portuguese population. A national community sample (N = 1210) took part in face-to-face interviews based on the Stalking Victimization Inventory. Lifetime prevalence of stalking was 19.5%. The type of relationship between the victim and the stalker was one of the main predictors of stalking diversity and duration (the closer the relationship, the greater the diversity and duration). The stalking impact was higher in victims that experienced more diverse stalking behaviours and fear. We also concluded that fear and impact mediate the relationship between stalking diversity and helpseeking. Results demonstrate that stalking victimization significantly affects the Portuguese population.

When Daddy Stalks Mommy: Experiences of Intimate Partner Stalking and Involvement of Social and Legal Authorities When Stalker and Victim Have Children Together.

This study examined intimate partner stalking experienced by 196 mothers stalked by the father of their children. Respondents completed a questionnaire concerning experiences of stalking and level of support by the authorities. Results revealed higher rates of harassing than violent stalking. In many cases, the children were also targeted by the stalking. Encounters with several agencies were common, but respondents were often not recognized as victims of stalking and demoralized by extensive case proceedings. This study calls for a special sensitivity of professionals encountering stalked parents in their work and highlights a need for coordination and cooperation among multiple agencies.

Lifetime Number of Perpetrators and Victim-Offender Relationship Status Per U.S. Victim of Intimate Partner, Sexual Violence, or Stalking.

The aim of this study was to describe the U.S. population-level prevalence of multiple perpetrator types (intimate partner, acquaintance, stranger, person of authority, or family member) per victim and to describe the prevalence of victim-offender relationship status combinations. Authors analyzed U.S. nationally representative data from noninstitutionalized adult respondents with self-reported lifetime exposure to intimate partner violence, sexual violence, or stalking in the 2012 National Intimate Partner and Sexual Violence Survey (NISVS). An estimated 142 million U.S. adults had some lifetime exposure to intimate partner violence, sexual violence, or stalking. An estimated 55 million victims (39% of total victims) had more than one perpetrator type during their lifetimes. A significantly higher proportion of female victims reported more than one perpetrator type compared with male victims (49% vs. 27%). Among both female and male victims with >1 perpetrator type, the most prevalent victim-offender relationship status combinations all included an intimate partner perpetrator. Many victims of interpersonal violence are subject to multiple perpetrator types during their lifetimes. Prevention strategies that address polyvictimization and protect victims from additional perpetrators can have a substantial and beneficial societal impact. Research on victim experiences to inform prevention strategies is strengthened by comprehensively accounting for lifetime victimizations.

Stalking of social healthcare workers: Preliminary results of a study conducted in Sardinia, Italy

Several studies have highlighted that particular social and professional categories are at higher risk of being victim of stalking. Physicians and healthcare workers in general are at risk of being harassed while practising their profession, especially by their patients; this risk has been shown to be higher for psychiatrists and psychotherapists. According to a recent study, 21% of psychiatrists has been a victim of stalking; length of stalking behaviour on healthcare workers varies from a few weeks to several years. Aim of the present work is to gain a better understanding and a highlight on the frequency with which stalking occurs toward social and healthcare workers of public health facilities in Sardinia. After a review of literature, an anonymous questionnaire, prepared ad-hoc, has been administered to a sample of 265 healthcare workers in Sardinia: out of the 210 who have answered, we have taken into consideration 187 healthcare workers, have excluded 23 operators (psychiatric rehabilitators, professional educators, social workers) and chosen to analyze victimization suffered by psychiatrists, psychologists, nurses, social healthcare workers. In our sample the subjects who reported harassments comparable to the crime of stalking are represented by 30 healthcare workers out of the total sample of 187 (16%). Females are the most frequently represented with a ratio of 23/30 (77%) compared to males 7/30 (23%). The risk of being a victim of harassment was higher for the group of psychiatrists and psychologists than for nurses. Among the victims, 18 were psychiatrists (60%), 3 psychologists (10%), and 9 nurses (30%). Healthcare professionals are at high risk of victimization. The main tool available to the services is the team approach to multi-problematic cases, avoiding isolation of the dyad designated operator-patient. The feeling of impotence and isolation that is frequent in the victims of stalking, as shown also in our sample, is highlighted by several studies in which 10% of the victims interviewed claims to have thoughts of suicide as a way out.

Longitudinal Associations Among Negative Cognitions and Depressive and Posttraumatic Stress Symptoms in Women Recently Exposed to Stalking.

Being stalked is a potentially traumatic experience associated with a threat to personal safety. Although major depression and posttraumatic stress (PTS) disorder are highly prevalent among stalking victims, little is known about factors associated with risk for the onset and maintenance of depressive and PTS symptoms in individuals with recent stalking exposure. The aim of this study was to determine the role of cognitive appraisals (negative views about the self, negative views about the world, self-blame) in the development of depressive and PTS symptoms in young adult women who had experienced stalking within 1 month of their baseline assessment. Participants (n = 82) completed self-report online surveys of posttraumatic cognitions and symptoms four times over the course of 3 months. Levels of posttraumatic cognitions among female stalking victims were comparable to those in other studies of trauma-exposed individuals. Multilevel models (MLMs) revealed that within-person changes in cognitions were differentially associated with concurrent changes in depressive and PTS symptoms over time, controlling for the influence of time, age, race, ethnicity, lifetime stalking victimization, childhood trauma exposure, and symptoms of the other disorder. Whereas more negative cognitions about the world were associated with higher levels of concurrent depressive and PTS symptoms, negative cognitions about the self were uniquely associated with higher concurrent depressive symptoms. Contrary to expectation, self-blame was not significantly associated with depressive or PTS symptoms. Results provided support for the potential utility of negative cognitions as risk markers for depressive and PTS symptoms in young adult female stalking victims. The present findings suggest that interventions targeting symptom-specific thinking patterns could help reduce risk for negative mental health outcomes associated with stalking victimization.

Stalking: an examination of the correlates of subsequent police responses

PurposeFew studies have explored the correlates of police responses to the crime of stalking. The purpose of this paper is to examine the correlates of nine specific police actions (no action, multiple actions, took a report, talked to perpetrator, arrested perpetrator, recommended PO or RO, recommended self-protection, referred to prosecutor’s office and referred to social services) to this type of crime. This study found three of the four incident measures (victim-offender relationship, intimidation and physical injury) and three of the four victim demographic measures (age, gender and marital status) significantly predicted seven of the nine police actions.Design/methodology/approachData for this study came from the 2006 Stalking Victimization Supplement of the National Crime Victimization Survey (NCVS). The sample included stalking cases that were reported to the police and all measures were constructed using victims’ responses to survey questionnaires. Nine logistic regression models were estimated and in each model, four incident characteristic variables and four victim demographic variables were regressed on each of the nine police actions.FindingsThis study found three of the four incident characteristic measures (victim-offender relationship, intimidation, and physical injury) and three of the four victim demographic variables (age, gender and marital status) were significantly related to seven of the nine specific police actions (no action, multiple actions, arrested perpetrator, recommended PO or RO, recommended self-protection, referred to prosecutor’s office and referred to social services). None of the incident characteristic and victim demographic measures were related to two of the nine specific police actions (took a report and talked to perpetrator).Research limitations/implicationsThis study possesses the same shortcomings associated with the NCVS. The current study involves cross-sectional, official data that are over 10 years old. The measures employed in the current study are victims’ perceptions of how the officers acted. The study does not include information regarding how many times the victim contacted the police or the nature of the stalking episode. The study excludes other variables (suspect’s demeanor, the presence of witnesses) that may be relevant in examining subsequent police responses to stalking.Practical implicationsFrontline offices should be required to undertake stalking training. Further, stalking training needs to be conducted independently from domestic violence training. Mandatory stalking training for law enforcement officers will lead to a greater comprehension of existing stalking statute for the officers as well as help increase the number of offenders being identified and charged with this crime by the officers.Social implicationsPolice inaction to reported stalking not only dissuade victims from reporting future victimizations, it will also result in stalking being an under-reported crime. Police inaction could potentially compromise victim safety and/or offender accountability. Police inaction also undermines the legitimacy of law enforcement and attenuates the relationship between citizens and police agencies.Originality/valueTo date, only one study has examined the correlates of subsequent police responses to the crime of stalking. However, this study employed broad measures of police actions (formal and informal). The current study involves specific police actions (e.g. taking a report, referring the victim to social service agencies). Contrary to the prior study that found none of the incident and victim characteristics was related to two broad measures of subsequent police responses, this study found several incident and victim measures significantly predicted seven specific police actions.

The Relationship Between Offline and Online Stalking Victimization: A Gender-Specific Analysis.

This study focuses on the relationship between online and offline stalking through a gendered approach. Experiencing offline stalking victimization was examined as a precursor to online stalking victimization, and experiencing cyberstalking victimization was investigated as a predictor of offline stalking victimization. These relationships also were tested separately for females and males using a sample of college students (N = 3,488) from two large universities-one in the Midwest and one in the South. The results for the full sample indicate that being stalked offline increases students' likelihood of being stalked online. However, being a victim of cyberstalking did not affect students' chances of being stalked offline. In the gender-specific analyses, findings suggest that females who are cyberstalked are less likely to be successively stalked offline, whereas males who are cyberstalked are more likely to be stalked offline. Finally, offline stalking victimization was a significant predictor of online victimization for females, but not males. These findings suggest that offline and online forms of stalking victimization are interrelated under some circumstances, and highlight the importance of the victim's gender in moderating this relationship.

Prevalence rates, reporting, and psychosocial correlates of stalking victimization: results from a three-sample cross-sectional study.

Public health and criminal justice stalking victimization data collection efforts are plagued by subjective definitions and lack of known psychosocial correlates. The present study assesses the question of stalking victimization prevalence among three groups. Psychosocial risk and protective factors associated with stalking victimization experiences were assessed. Archival data (n = 2159) were drawn from a three-sample (i.e., U.S. nationwide sexual diversity special interest group, college student, and general population adult) cross-sectional survey of victimization, sexuality, and health. The range of endorsement of stalking-related victimization experiences was 13.0-47.9%. Reported perpetrators were both commonly known and unknown persons to the victim. Participants disclosed the victimization primarily to nobody or a family member/friend. Bivariate correlates of stalking victimization were female gender, Associates/Bachelor-level education, bisexual or other sexual orientation minority status, hypertension, diabetes, older age, higher weekly drug use, elevated trait aggression, higher cognitive reappraisal skills, lower rape myth acceptance, and elevated psychiatric symptoms. Logistic regression results showed the strongest factors in identifying elevated stalking victimization risk were: older age, elevated aggression, higher cognitive reappraisal skills, lesser low self-control, increased symptoms of suicidality and PTSD re-experiencing, and female and other gender minority status. Behavioral approaches to epidemiological and criminal justice stalking victimization are recommended. Victimization under reporting to healthcare and legal professionals were observed. Further research and prevention programming is needed to capitalize on data concerning personality and coping skills, sexual diversity, and trauma-related psychiatric symptoms.

Psychodynamic Psychiatrists' Experiences of Being Stalked.

Despite the estimated 15% likelihood that a psychiatrist will become the victim of stalking, there is little formal recognition of its prevalence or its impact on well-being. Through narrative accounts, ten psychiatrists with psychodynamic orientations speak of their experiences including how each managed the anxieties consequent to stalking. These include a variety of adaptive psychic operations as well as concrete actions to curtail stalking.

VAWA is Not Enough: Academics Speak Out About VAWA

The VAWA reauthorization bill would extend funding for important services; provide additional protections for victims of domestic violence, dating violence, sexual assault, and stalking; and would ensure that tribal courts have jurisdiction over domestic violence that occurs on tribal land. We urge Congress to pass this bill!

Psychological Impact of Stalking on Male and Female Health Care Professional Victims of Stalking and Domestic Violence.

The aim of this work was to investigate stalking experiences in a sample of Health Care Professionals, or HCPs, who experienced domestic violence in their previous relationships with an intimate romantic or non-romantic who had become their stalkers. A comparison between males and females was made to highlight the differences among the genders. The findings showed that, for the most part, the victims experienced stalking by a stalker that was not of the same gender. Moreover, the nature of the relationship was romantic, for the most part, for both female and male subjects, suggesting that the principal motivation of stalking is the disruption of an intimate relationship. Regarding domestic violence, females described the phenomenon from a different perspective, indicating verbal, physical, and sexual abuse, while males indicated only verbal abuse. Females tended to amplify, more than the males, depression, and state and trait anxiety. Even if all symptoms were expressed in both females and males, the males exhibited a lack of confidence in their bodies, and the emotional literacy made the expression of distress more difficult. At the same time, the expression of anxiety presented in the women permitted them to become progressively less victimized over time; depression and anxiety allow the recognition of these symptoms as signs of distress and to intervene to reduce them.

Identifying the Needs of American Indian Women Who Sought Shelter: A Practitioner-Researcher Partnership

American Indian women across all ages are significantly more likely than women of other ethnic groups to be victims of domestic violence, sexual assault, and stalking. Despite their increased risk of interpersonal violence, there are few published studies or reports that explicitly examine the needs of victimized American Indian women. Therefore, both researchers and service providers know very little about the multifaceted needs of victimized American Indian women and whether current community services are meeting the needs of victimized native women. Identifying such needs is a logical next step so that victim service agencies can develop and effectively provide services tailored to victimized American Indian women. This commentary addresses these gaps by (1) identifying the needs of American Indian women in a domestic violence shelter in Arizona, and (2) highlighting the researcher-practitioner partnership that made it possible to gain access to these victims. Drawing on survey responses from 37 American Indian female clients and interviews with 10 staff members, the findings reveal that the domestic violence agency service provider is meeting many of their needs. Findings also indicate that clients have a wide variety of specific personal needs (e.g., safety, housing, transportation), needs relating to their children (e.g., safety, education, socialization), community needs (e.g., relating to their tribe), as well as legal needs (e.g., help obtaining a restraining order or divorce). These multifaceted needs are discussed and specific recommendations are provided for successful researcher-practitioner partnerships.