Stainless Steel Circular Hollow Section Research Articles

Numerical investigation and design methods of the local buckling of WAAM stainless steel circular hollow section stub columns

3D printing is an advanced technology that has been used in biomedical and automotive engineering, and has raised a significant response in civil engineering. Wire and arc additive manufacturing (WAAM), a metal 3D printing technology, has prospective applications in steel construction because it can fabricate large-scale structural members at an acceptable cost and manufacturing efficiency. Fundamental studies are still urgently needed to realize its engineering application. However, due to the irregular geometric features, limited studies on the structural performance of WAAM components, particularly the numerical studies, have been carried out. To this end, a numerical investigation on the local buckling of WAAM stainless steel circular hollow section (CHS) stub columns under axial compression has been conducted and presented herein. The finite element (FE) models were established and validated against the existing experimental research. Parametric studies were subsequently carried out to broaden the cross-sectional resistance data pool using the developed FE models. The applicability of the cross-section design provisions specified in EN 1993-1-4:2006 + A2:2020, ANSI/AISC 370-21 and the continuous strength method (CSM) for the design of WAAM CHS was evaluated according to the experimental and FE results. Furthermore, a modified design method with improved accuracy was suggested.

Global buckling and resistances of austenitic stainless steel semi-oval hollow section beam-columns

As advanced manufacturing technologies become increasingly mature in civil engineering, novel tubular sections, characterised by appealing architectural appearance and prominent structural efficiency, can be fabricated, with an example being semi-oval hollow section. The present paper reports an experimental and numerical investigation into the global buckling behaviour and resistances of austenitic stainless steel semi-oval hollow section beam-columns under combined compression and bending. An experimental programme was firstly performed on ten austenitic stainless steel semi-oval hollow section beam-column specimens and included initial geometric imperfection measurements and eccentric compression tests. The obtained test failure loads, load–mid-height lateral deflection curves and failure modes were fully reported. Following the experimental programme, a numerical modelling programme was conducted, including validation studies to validate developed finite element models against the test results and parametric studies to generate additional numerical data. Given that the existing European code and American specification do not cover the design of stainless steel semi-oval hollow section components, the applicability of the codified design interaction curves for austenitic stainless steel circular hollow section beam-columns to their semi-oval hollow section counterparts was evaluated based on the obtained test and numerical data. The European code was found to result in relatively accurate and consistent resistance predictions for austenitic stainless steel semi-oval hollow section beam-columns with Class 1 and 2 cross-sections, but the resistance predictions for those with Class 3 cross-sections were conservative and scattered. The American specification was shown to offer overall accurate and consistent resistance predictions, but some resistance predictions were marginally unsafe.

Fire behaviour of stainless steel circular hollow section stub columns: Experimental study and design

Circular hollow sections (CHS) are common in structural engineering owing to their excellent aesthetic appearance and structural behaviour. However, there is no existing experimental study into the cross-sectional behaviour of stainless steel CHS in fire. To fill this gap, an experimental study performed on austenitic stainless steel CHS in fire is presented in this paper. A total of eight CHS stub columns were examined at different temperatures, spanning from 20 °C to 800 °C. The material properties, geometric characteristics and local geometric imperfections of the tested CHS stub columns were also obtained simultaneously. Finally, the accuracy of EN 1993-1-2 design rules and a recent design method proposed by Quan et al. was assessed based on the obtained test data. It is shown that, compared to the design rules of EN 1993-1-2, the ultimate cross-sectional resistances predicted by the design method of Quan et al. can achieve higher accuracy and reliability for stainless steel CHS in fire.

Stability and design of stainless steel hollow section columns at elevated temperatures

This paper investigates the stability and design of stainless steel circular, elliptical, square and rectangular hollow section (CHS, EHS, SHS and RHS) columns at elevated temperatures. Nonlinear shell finite element models are employed to conduct comprehensive parametric studies whereby extensive benchmark structural performance data on the behaviour and resistance of stainless steel hollow section columns at elevated temperatures is generated. In total, 26,760 cold-formed and hot-rolled austenitic, duplex and ferritic stainless steel CHS, EHS, SHS and RHS columns at elevated temperatures are taken into account, considering various member slendernesses, cross-section geometries, cross-section slendernesses and elevated temperature levels. New flexural buckling design rules are put forward for stainless steel hollow section columns in fire, which consistently considers the elevated temperature strength at 2% total strain f2,θ as the reference material strength for all cross-sections classes. The accuracy, safety and reliability of the proposed new design rules are assessed for a wide range of cases. Comparisons are also made against the results obtained through the column fire design rules of the European structural steel fire design standard EN 1993-1-2 [1]. It is demonstrated that the proposed new design rules furnish more accurate, safe-sided and reliable flexural buckling resistance predictions for stainless steel hollow section columns at elevated temperatures relative to the column fire design provisions of EN 1993-1-2 [1].

Local buckling response and design of stainless steel hollow sections at elevated temperatures

AbstractThe structural behaviour and design of stainless steel hollow sections in fire, including stainless steel (i) circular hollow sections (CHS), (ii) elliptical hollow sections (EHS), (iii) square hollow sections (SHS) and (iv) rectangular hollow sections (RHS), are explored in this paper. Shell finite element models of stainless steel CHS, EHS, SHS and RHS able to replicate their structural response at elevated temperatures are created. Numerical parametric studies are performed on cold‐formed and hot‐rolled austenitic, duplex and ferritic stainless steel CHS, EHS, SHS and RHS subjected to (i) pure compression, (ii) pure bending, (iii) combined axial compression and bending and (iv) combined bending and shear in fire, covering different cross‐section slendernesses and elevated temperature levels. Calibrated against the benchmark structural performance data obtained from the numerical parametric studies, the new design proposals for predicting the ultimate resistances of stainless steel CHS, EHS, SHS and RHS in fire put forward in Quan and Kucukler [1,2] are set out. It is demonstrated that relative to the design recommendations provided in the European structural steel fire design standard EN 1993‐1‐2, the proposed cross‐section design methods provide more accurate and safe‐sided ultimate resistance predictions for stainless steel CHS, EHS, SHS and RHS at elevated temperatures.

Local buckling of WAAM stainless steel circular columns

AbstractWire and Arc Additive Manufacturing (WAAM) is one of the promising metal 3D printing techniques, with the ability to produce large‐scale structural components with high speed and low cost. However, there is a lack of research on the structural performance of WAAM members. To this end, numerical modeling and design of WAAM stainless steel circular hollow section (CHS) stub columns has been conducted. Finite element (FE) models considering both as‐built material properties and rough geometry were proposed and verified by the existing experimental studies. By using the FE models, parametric studies on the local buckling resistance of WAAM CHS stub columns were conducted to consider a wider range of specimen geometries. Based on the FE results, the applicability of the current column design provisions in EN 1993‐1‐4 and AISC 370 to WAAM stainless steel CHS stub columns was assessed. At last, a new modified method was proposed to predict the local buckling resistance of WAAM stainless steel CHS stub columns. This study provides a novel approach for the FE modelling of WAAM components.

Structural response and design of stainless steel hollow section columns at elevated temperatures

AbstractThis paper investigates the flexural buckling behaviour and design of stainless steel circular, elliptical, square and rectangular hollow section (CHS, EHS, SHS and RHS) columns at elevated temperatures through numerical modelling. Shell finite element models are utilised to perform numerical parametric studies whereby benchmark structural performance data are generated. A large number of cold‐formed and hot‐rolled austenitic, duplex and ferritic stainless steel CHS, EHS, SHS and RHS columns at elevated temperatures are taken into account, considering various cross‐section and member slendernesses. Since the fire design provisions provided in the European fire design standard EN 1993‐1‐2 for stainless steel columns are largely based on those originally developed for carbon steel columns, they typically lead to rather inaccurate ultimate resistance predictions for stainless steel columns at elevated temperatures. To address this, in the present study, a new flexural buckling design method for stainless steel hollow section columns at elevated temperatures is put forward. The accuracy, safety and reliability of the proposed design method and the provisions in EN 1993‐1‐2 are assessed. It is observed that the proposed fire design method leads to more accurate, safe‐sided and reliable flexural buckling resistance predictions for stainless steel hollow section columns at elevated temperatures relative to the provisions in EN 1993‐1‐2.

Strength enhancement and stub-column behavior of cold-formed stainless steel elliptical hollow sections

This paper aims to investigate the strength enhancement, local geometric imperfections, and stub-column behavior of cold-formed (CF) stainless steel elliptical hollow sections (EHS) by using finite element methods. In the present study, an advanced numerical approach was used to conduct a comprehensive parametric study for CF stainless steel EHS with a wide range of cross-section dimensions and slenderness values as well as different stainless steel alloys. By analyzing the generated numerical data from the parametric study, the effects of cold-forming and material parameters on the strength enhancement were examined. Predictive models of the strength enhancement as well as the local geometric imperfections for CF stainless steel EHS are proposed. The slenderness limits for CF stainless steel circular hollow sections (CHS) and CF steel EHS in the existing design methods were assessed for CF stainless steel EHS. New slenderness limits are proposed for CF stainless steel EHS. In addition, the existing equivalent diameter method, the Continuous Strength Method (CSM) and the Direct Strength Method (DSM) were evaluated for the design of CF stainless steel EHS. Modifications on these existing design methods are proposed for CF stainless steel EHS, which can improve their accuracy.

Cross-section resistance and design of stainless steel CHS and EHS at elevated temperatures

The structural behaviour and design of stainless steel circular hollow sections (CHS) and elliptical hollow sections (EHS) at elevated temperatures are investigated in this paper. Shell finite element models of stainless steel CHS and EHS are created and validated against experimental results from the literature, which are subsequently used to generate benchmark structural performance data. Parametric studies are performed on a large number of cold-formed and hot-rolled austenitic, duplex and ferritic stainless steel CHS and EHS subjected to (i) pure axial compression, (ii) pure bending, (iii) combined axial compression and bending and (iv) combined bending and shear at elevated temperatures; the studied cases comprise 24,495 stainless steel CHS and EHS in fire and cover a wide range of cross-section slendernesses and elevated temperature levels. Calibrated against the benchmark structural performance data obtained from the numerical parametric studies, new design proposals for predicting the cross-section resistances of stainless steel CHS and EHS in fire are put forward. The accuracy, safety and reliability of the new design proposals are assessed. It is shown that in comparison to the design provisions of the European structural steel fire design standard EN 1993-1-2, the proposed design methods provide more accurate and safe-sided cross-section resistance predictions for stainless steel CHS and EHS at elevated temperatures.

Design of stainless steel CHS-concrete infill-carbon steel CHS double-skin stub columns

Concrete filled double-skin tubular (CFDST) stub column with outer stainless steel circular hollow section (CHS) and inner carbon steel CHS is presented in this paper. It combines the strength of stainless steel, concrete and carbon steel, and also provides the stainless steel's durability, ductility and corrosion resistance properties along with the lighter weight due to the sectional feature. Finite element analysis (FEA) is done in this paper and the developed FE models are verified with the available test results on the basis of failure modes, full load-deformation curves and ultimate strengths of the specimens. Afterward, a series of parametric analysis are conducted to investigate the structural performance of each component and the overall column as well as the confining stresses between the tubes and concrete. In addition, the effect of stainless-steel grade, concrete strength, carbon-steel strength, diameter-to-thickness ratio of outer tube, diameter-to-thickness ratio of inner tube and hollow ratio on confining stress and mechanical property of sandwiched concrete is studied. The constitutive models of sandwiched concrete and outer stainless steel tube under plane stress are proposed. Based on these proposed models, the fiber element model is used to predict the mechanical properties of this composite column and then checked with the finite element modelling (FEM) outputs. Different design methods such as ACI code, European code, continuous strength method (CSM), Han et al. method and Nie et al. method are assessed to evaluate the applicability and accuracy. Finally, a new design method for calculating the ultimate bearing capacity of the CFDST stub column is proposed, which exhibits good agreement with the results of the FEA.

Crippling of cold-formed stainless steel circular tubular members under concentrated bearing loads

This study presents experimental, theoretical, and numerical investigations on the crippling behaviors of cold-formed stainless steel circular hollow sections (CHS) subjected to concentrated bearing loads. First, a total of twenty-four specimens, six for each loading condition, were tested under four typical loading conditions, namely the end-one-flange, interior-one-flange, end-two-flange and interior-two-flange. Thereafter, yield-line models were established based on the failure modes demonstrated by the tests, and preliminary equations for the crippling strength were derived. Subsequently, finite element models were developed and validated against the test results and used for parametric analysis. The coefficients in the preliminary equations were modified based on the results of the parametric analysis. Finally, a comparison between the test results and prediction of the proposed equations was performed, which indicated that the proposed equations provided accurate predictions for the crippling strengths of cold-formed stainless steel CHS.

Microstructure, Mechanical Properties and Cross‐sectional Behaviour of Additively Manufactured Stainless Steel Cylindrical Shells

AbstractPowder bed fusion (PBF) is an additive manufacturing method that enables complex metallic components to be manufactured with high precision. The microstructure, mechanical properties and cross‐sectional behaviour of PBF additively manufactured stainless steel circular hollow sections are investigated through experiments in this paper, with a view to applications in construction. The experimental programme included tensile coupon tests, microstructural characterisation, initial geometric imperfection measurements and compression tests on PBF 316L stainless steel cylindrical shells with large diameter‐to‐thickness (D/t) ratios. Advanced measurement methods – 3D laser scanning and digital image correlation, were employed to measure the specimen geometries prior to testing and deformation fields during testing, respectively. The possible anisotropy in mechanical properties was examined through tensile coupon tests and correlated with the underlying microstructural and textural features. Compression tests were performed to investigate the resistance against local buckling of thin‐walled cylindrical shells produced by PBF. All cylindrical shells buckled below their yield loads with a chequerboard failure mode and revealed the anticipated trend of reducing capacity relative to the yield load with increasing local slenderness, reflecting the increasing susceptibility to local buckling.

Testing, simulation and design of hot-rolled seamless austenitic stainless steel CHS columns

Stainless steel circular hollow section (CHS) members are favoured by architects and structural engineers because of their aesthetics, superior torsional resistance and corrosion resistance. Hot-rolling is one of the typical production processes for producing CHS members. Nevertheless, few research has been carried out concerning the hot-rolled stainless steel CHS members. This paper reports experimental and numerical investigations into hot-rolled seamless stainless steel CHS columns. Flexural buckling tests on eight columns were firstly carried out in the experimental investigation. This was followed by numerical modelling investigation, where the FE models were developed and validated against the test results. The validated FE models were then used to conduct a series of parametric studies to obtain more data covering a wide range of member slenderness and cross-section sizes. Based on test and FE results, three existing design approaches in the Eurocode, Chinese specification and American specification were assessed and discussed. The assessment results show that the three design approaches all provide relatively accurate strength prediction on the whole, but the design approaches in the 1993-1-4 + A2 and ANSI/AISC 370-21both give overestimated strength predictions while design approach in the CECS 410 gives a relatively conservative strength prediction when the column slenderness is small. In view of this, new column design curve has been proposed, with its advantage over the existing design approaches confirmed by quantitative and graphical comparisons.

Design of cold-formed stainless steel circular hollow section columns using machine learning methods

Most existing design methods for the bearing capacity of stainless steel circular hollow section (CHS) columns were developed for a specific grade considering merely the global buckling failure mode. However, a variety of stainless steel grades with significant differences in material properties exist, and CHS columns may undergo local buckling, global buckling and global–local interactive buckling. To develop a unified design method suitable for various stainless steel grades and failure modes, this study adopted a machine learning based framework. First, 39 tests were conducted on cold-formed stainless steel CHS columns. Material properties, imperfections, load-deformation curves, and failure modes were reported in detail. Then, test data on stainless steel CHS columns in literature were collected and formed a database with 280 columns. Afterwards, two machine learning algorithms, Random Forest and Extreme Gradient Boosting, were used to predict the bearing capacity of column based on four types of input parameters. The Random Forest algorithm obtained the highest prediction accuracy when using all the design parameters as input. The accuracy of Random Forest algorithm based on the Comprehensive parameters (i.e., the non-dimensional slenderness of cross-section and member) is improved considerably when including the ratio of yield strength over the Young’s modulus as the input parameter. Finally, the prediction of machine learning method was compared with that of the design method in Design manual for structural stainless steel, and the proposed method shows a better accuracy.

Testing, simulation and design of eccentrically loaded austenitic stainless steel CHS stub columns after exposure to elevated temperatures

The present paper reports an in-depth testing and numerical modelling programme, to study the post-fire local buckling behaviour and residual resistances of austenitic stainless steel circular hollow section (CHS) stub columns under combined compression and bending moment. The testing programme employed twelve austenitic stainless steel CHS stub column specimens and included heating and cooling of the stub column specimens, post-fire material testing and post-fire combined loading tests. The testing programme was followed by a numerical modelling programme, where finite element models were developed and validated against the test results and then employed to perform parametric studies to generate additional numerical data. It is worth noting that there are currently no design standards established specifically for stainless steel structures after exposure to fire. In this study, the relevant design rules (i.e. cross-section interaction curves) for stainless steel CHS under combined loading at ambient temperature, as set out in the European, American and Australian/New Zealand standards and given in the continuous strength method, were assessed for their applicability to austenitic stainless steel CHS under combined loading after exposure to fire, based on the obtained test and numerical data. The results of the assessments revealed that all the codified design cross-section interaction curves have certain shortcomings, including the lack of rational exploitation of material strain hardening and the use of linear interaction, and thus yield excessively high degrees of conservatism and scatter when used for austenitic stainless steel CHS under combined loading after exposure to fire. The continuous strength method was shown to lead to accurate and consistent post-fire residual resistance predictions for austenitic stainless steel CHS under combined loading, due principally to the rational consideration of material strain hardening. Finally, the reliability of the continuous strength method was confirmed by means of statistical analyses.

A unified approach for austenitic and ferritic stainless steel CHS beam–columns subjected to eccentric loading

This paper develops a unified approach for assessing structural behaviour of austenitic and ferritic stainless steel circular hollow section (CHS) beam–columns​ under eccentric loading. This approach is based on combining a deformation-based method and collapse theory for stainless steel CHS beam–columns.A normalised M–N–Φ relationship of stainless steel CHS was derived based on a fibre model; the approach incorporated deformation capacity and strain hardening based on continuous strength method (CSM). The novelty of this paper is to present a closed-form solution for generating axial-load–end-moment interaction curves of the stainless steel CHS beam–column by combining the normalised M–N–Φ equation with a general beam–column equation. Besides, a critical normalised mid-height curvature was determined, which could be used to differentiate cross-section local buckling failure from global stability failure of stainless steel CHS beam–columns under combined loading. The proposed approach related the strengths of beam–columns to the effective column lengths by introducing a new non-dimensional slenderness ratio for stainless steel CHS beam–columns. It also provided an explicit way to consider the effect of column imperfections on the strengths of stainless steel CHS beam–columns. Accuracy of the derived normalised interaction curves was assessed by comparing the predictions against the test and numerical results for a wide range of non-dimensional slenderness ratios and different classes of CHS cross-sections for both stainless steel grades. A high level of accuracy and consistency was achieved in predicting the strengths of both short and long stainless steel CHS beam–columns for both types of steel grade.

Experimental and numerical study of hot-rolled duplex stainless steel CHS columns

Stainless steel circular hollow section (CHS) members have been widely used in building structures because of their comparable strength to structural carbon steels, attractive appearance and excellent corrosion resistance. However, research on stainless steel CHS members has been limited to cold-formed members, whereas hot-rolled CHS columns have received less attention. To this end, the flexural buckling performance of hot-rolled duplex stainless steel CHS columns was investigated by a comprehensive experimental and numerical programme. A total of seven hot-rolled duplex stainless steel CHS columns covering two cross-sectional sizes with varying lengths have been tested under compression. Based on the test results, finite element (FE) models were developed and used in parametric studies to generate data points with a wider range of geometric dimensions. Comparing the test and FE results with current design guidance, it was found that the Chinese standard, CECS 410, and North American design guidance, AISC DG 27, underestimate significantly the flexural buckling resistance of such columns, while the design method in Eurocode 3: Part 1–4 might be unsafe in predicting the resistances for low slenderness values. New column buckling curves based on the Eurocode 3 and AISC DG 27 design formulae with improved accuracy and reduced scatters were also proposed and validated through careful reliability analysis.

Testing and analysis of additively manufactured stainless steel CHS in compression

Additive manufacturing, also referred to as 3D printing, has the potential to revolutionise the construction industry, offering opportunities for enhanced design freedom and reduced material use. There is currently, however, very limited data concerning the performance of additively manufactured metallic structural elements. To address this, an experimental and numerical investigation into the cross-sectional behaviour of circular hollow sections (CHS), produced by powder bed fusion (PBF) from Grade 316L stainless steel powder, is presented. The experimental programme comprised tensile coupon tests, initial geometric imperfection measurements and five axially loaded stub column tests on specimens with a range of diameter-to-thickness (D/t) ratios. Similar cross-sectional behaviour to that of conventionally produced stainless steel CHS was observed, with the more slender cross-sections displaying increased susceptible to local buckling. In parallel with the experimental study, numerical simulations were carried out initially to replicate the experimental results and then to conduct parametric studies to extend the cross-sectional capacity data over a wider range of D/t ratios. The generated experimental and numerical results, together with other available test data on stainless steel CHS from the literature, were used to evaluate the applicability of existing design approaches for conventionally formed sections to those produced by additive manufacturing.

Flexural buckling behaviour and residual strengths of stainless steel CHS columns after exposure to fire

The flexural buckling behaviour and residual strengths of stainless steel circular hollow section (CHS) columns after exposure to fire were studied, based on a thorough experimental and numerical modelling programme, and reported in this paper. The experimental programme was performed on three series of specimens, and each series contained five geometrically identical specimens, with one unheated and the other four heated to different levels of elevated temperatures (namely 300 °C, 600 °C, 800 °C and 1000 °C). The detailed heating, soaking and cooling processes, material testing and pin-ended column tests were described, with the derived key experimental results fully presented. The testing programme was supplemented by a numerical modelling programme, including a validation study where finite element models were developed and validated against the test results, and a parametric study where the validated finite element models were employed to derive further numerical results over an extended range of cross-section dimensions and member lengths. Due to the absence of existing design codes for stainless steel structures after exposure to fire, the codified design provisions for stainless steel CHS columns at ambient temperature, as established in the Europe, America and Australia/New Zealand, were assessed for their applicability to stainless steel CHS columns after exposure to fire, based on the obtained test and numerical data. The assessment results generally revealed that the design buckling curve, as adopted in the European code, and the tangent modulus method, as employed in the American specification, lead to unsafe and scattered design flexural buckling strengths for stainless steel CHS columns after exposure to fire, while the explicit approach, as used in the Australian/New Zealand standard, yields a high level of accuracy and consistency in predicting the post-fire flexural buckling strengths of stainless steel CHS columns. • The flexural buckling responses and residual strengths of stainless steel circular hollow section (CHS) columns after exposure to fire were investigated. • Three series of stainless steel CHS column specimens were tested, with each series containing one unheated specimen and four specimens heated to different levels of elevated temperatures. • Finite element models were developed and validated against test results, and then utilised to perform parametric studies. • The accuracy of the codified flexural buckling design rules for stainless steel CHS columns at ambient temperature was assessed for their post-fire counterparts.

Cold-formed stainless steel CHS beam-columns – Testing, simulation and design

The present work was prompted by shortcomings identified in existing design provisions for stainless steel circular hollow section (CHS) beam-columns. First, addressing a lack of existing experimental data, a series of ferritic stainless steel CHS beam-column tests was undertaken at the cross-section and member levels. In total, 26 beam-column tests, including two section sizes (a non-slender class 3 and slender class 4 cross-section), two member slenderness values for each cross-section type and a wide range of loading eccentricities were carried out to investigate the interaction between local and global buckling. Following validation of finite element (FE) models, a numerical study was then undertaken to explore the buckling response of stainless steel CHS beam-columns, covering austenitic, duplex and ferritic grades with a wide range of local and global slendernesses and applied loading eccentricities. Over 2000 numerical results were generated and used to assess new design proposals for stainless steel beam-columns, featuring improved compression and bending end points and new interaction factors. The new proposals are more consistent and more accurate in their resistance predictions than the current EN 1993-1-4 (2015) design approach. The reliability of the new proposals has been verified by means of statistical analyses according to EN 1990 (2005).