Period Of Stagnation Research Articles

The Geography of EU Discontent and the Regional Development Trap

While in recent times many regions have flourished, many others are stuck—or are at risk of becoming stuck—in a development trap. Such regions experience decline in economic growth, employment, and productivity relative to their neighbors and to their own past trajectories. Prolonged periods in development traps are leading to political dissatisfaction and unrest. Such discontent is often translated into support for antisystem parties at the ballot box. In this article we study the link between the risk, intensity, and duration of regional development traps and the rise of discontent in the European Union (EU)—proxied by the support for Eurosceptic parties in national elections between 2013 and 2022—using an econometric analysis at a regional level. The results highlight the strong connection between being stuck in a development trap, often in middle- or high-income regions, and support for Eurosceptic parties. They also suggest that the longer the period of stagnation, the stronger the support for parties opposed to European integration. This relationship remains robust whether considering only the most extreme Eurosceptic parties or including parties with more moderate levels of Euroscepticism.

Adventitious root formation confers waterlogging tolerance in cowpea (Vigna unguiculata (L.) Walp.)

Crop adaptation to waterlogging stress necessitates alterations in their morpho-physiological and biochemical characteristics. Cowpeas, which serve as a dual-purpose legume crop (food and fodder), are sensitive to waterlogging stress, especially when exposed to extended periods of water stagnation during the early growth stage. In this study, we subjected five distinct and superior cowpea varieties to 10 days of waterlogging stress at the early seedling stage (V2, 15 days post emergence for 10 days) under controlled conditions. The aim was to comprehend the response of these varieties and identify the ideal trait for screening a large collection of cowpea genetic resources for waterlogging tolerance. We measured and analyzed changes in morpho-physiological and root parameters to gain a deeper understanding of the mechanism underlying waterlogging tolerance. The treatment (waterlogging and control), genotype, and their interactions had a significant impact on the most studied traits (p < 0.05). The results indicated a significant reduction in morpho-physiological parameters such as plant height, leaf area, leaf number, Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI), chlorophyll content, and chlorophyll fluorescence parameters under stress treatment than control conditions. However, root parameters like the number of adventitious roots (AR) and their length (ARL) significantly increased under waterlogging stress in tolerant cowpea varieties like DC15 and PL4. Correlation and PCA analyses further revealed a positive and significant association between cowpeas’ waterlogging tolerance and AR formation and its AR length. Therefore, the current study reveals that swift development of AR and ARL may serve as potential traits conferring waterlogging tolerance in cowpeas. Using suitable mapping populations, these traits could reveal genomic regions associated with waterlogging tolerance in cowpeas. The tolerant varieties and key traits identified in this study could be beneficial in breeding programs aimed at enhancing waterlogging tolerance in cowpeas.

Happy 30th Volume and 35th Anniversary, European Journal of Therapeutics!

Dear Colleagues, It is an honor for us to celebrate the thirty-fifth anniversary and thirtieth volume of the establishment of the European Journal of Therapeutics (Eur J Ther) and to share this editorial with you. Dr. Sabri Güngör, the first Editor-in-Chief of the Eur J Ther (formerly Journal of the Faculty of Medicine, University of Gaziantep), said the following in 1990 [1]: "What is happening in the medical world, which is witnessing dizzying changes every day, can be carried to the most extreme points in a very short time with today's communication tools." "Despite our limited resources, our aim is to fulfill this function in the best possible way from the first issue onwards." Although serious problems have been experienced from time to time during this thirty-five-year period, the Eur J Ther has continued on its way to move forward day by day, not counting the stagnation period between 2002 and 2006. As the current editorial team, our goal is to carry the Eur J Ther further with the contributions of our esteemed colleagues. On this 35th anniversary of the journal, we would like to thank the authors who submitted their work to the Eur J Ther. Your valuable work has made the Eur J Ther what it is today. We would also like to thank the hundreds of valuable referees who have served the Eur J Ther by reviewing these manuscripts and the previous Editors-in-Chief and Editors who have contributed to the advancement of the Eur J Ther in terms of scientific quality. With our respect,

Pathways to Prosperity: Navigating Post-Stagnation Growth and Revitalizing Business

This study examines the ways in which firms recover from stagnation or sales decline, with a focus on two key aspects: traditional high-growth companies and growth restarts within the framework of organizational life cycle theory. Analyzing a dataset of 1883 Russian firms from 2013 to 2021, this research employs logistic regression to identify factors that promote growth. These factors include the youth of the firm, investment intensity, and significant sales drops during periods of stagnation. The study introduces a new economic category, termed ‘restarting growth’, which signifies a firm’s sustained expansion following an extended period of stagnation. This category is crucial for identifying factors that increase the likelihood of a company transitioning to growth after prolonged stagnation or production downturn. The findings of this study reveal that firms that are younger, invest more intensively in fixed capital, and have experienced a larger sales drop during a period of stagnation are more likely to transition to growth. These results are juxtaposed with the growth factors characteristic of traditional high-growth companies, as well as with the theoretical approaches explaining growth restarts within the framework of organizational life cycle theory. Such distinctions are pivotal both for academic understanding and practical applications in discerning how companies rebound from crises. Moreover, the research identifies several highly significant factors—indicators that can assist investors in selecting promising firms for financing.

Disruptions in Educational Progress and Fertility Dynamics by Educational Level: Unraveling the Link between Education and Fertility Stalls in Sub‐Saharan Africa

AbstractStalls in fertility decline have been found in many sub‐Saharan African countries. Our objective is to unravel the relationship between education and stalled fertility by analyzing the extent to which fertility stalls reflect a lack of changes in the educational composition of the population or are related to reversals and halts in the fertility decline within educational groups. Using the Demographic and Health Surveys and Multiple Indicator Cluster Surveys, we first estimate total fertility rates by educational level and examine how they have varied over time, especially during periods of stagnation. Then, we use the Kitagawa decomposition method to analyze changes in country‐level fertility rates. We show that fertility stalls tend to be a collective experience with fertility stalls found among all educational groups in most countries that have experienced a fertility stall. In contrast, composition effects either have no or a limited impact on fertility stalls. However, slow educational progress made some countries more vulnerable to stalls.

Applying microelectrodes to investigate aged ductile iron and copper coupon reactivity during free chlorine application

In drinking water distribution systems, including premise plumbing, dissolved oxygen (DO) and free chlorine (FC) are common oxidants and ductile iron (DI) and copper (Cu) are commonly used pipe materials. Microelectrodes as a tool have been applied in previous corrosion research and were used in this study to collect quantifiable data and understand DO and FC reactivity and pH changes at the water-metal interface. Using microelectrodes, pH, DO, and FC profiles from the bulk water to near and at the surface of aged DI (154–190 d) and Cu (2 d and 86–156 d) coupons were investigated during periods of flow and stagnation (30 min). Using the measured microelectrode profiles, oxidant fluxes and apparent surface reaction rate constants were calculated to elucidate differences between DO and FC reactivity with the coupons. Microelectrodes were successfully applied to measure pH, DO, and FC profiles from the bulk water to near aged DI and Cu coupon surfaces; Cu coupons aged quickly and exhibited less reactivity at 2 d with DO and FC than aged DI coupons did after 154–190 d; and for the aged DI coupon experiments, orthophosphate presence stabilized pH profiles where without orthophosphate pH fluctuations of greater than 2 pH units occurred from the bulk water to the DI coupon surface.

Induced Partial Saturation Using Pseudomonas stutzeri Biogas for Mitigate Structure Settlement

Induced partial saturation (IPS) is a new foundation treatment method for mitigating soil liquefaction using biogas. A series of laboratory tests were performed to demonstrate the influencing factors of IPS using Pseudomonas stutzeri biogas. On the basis of the optimal biogas production conditions, the intervention effect of Pseudomonas stutzeri biogas on the foundation deformation under buildings was investigated based on shaking table tests. The test results showed that the best carbon source in the denitrification process of Pseudomonas stutzeri biogas is sodium citrate. The most effective initial value of optical density-based concentration was 0.1. The carbon–nitrogen ratio (C/N) of the bacterium suspension was used as the index to control the saturation. The degree of saturation reduction showed a good linear correlation with the C/N. The optimum temperature of this method was between 20 °C and 30 °C. The most suitable pH value was between 7 and 9. The environmental factors had minimal influence on the degree of saturation reduction but had a significant effect on the average rate of gas generation and the period of initial stagnation. After Pseudomonas stutzeri biogas desaturation, the settlement of the building was greatly reduced. The settlement of saturation of 92.5% sand foundation reached 17.1 mm, and the 85% saturation was only 10.6 mm. These results provide a good foundation for the feasibility of utilizing Pseudomonas stutzeri biogas mitigation of the liquefaction hazard of sand.

The conflicting temporalities of immigrant integration in the Nordic welfare state of Finland

ABSTRACT This article discusses street-level immigrant integration work through the lens of time. Our interest in the temporalities of integration stems from our experiences of researching integration and employment services and measures in Finland. Based on interviews and ethnographic observation, we identify two conflicting temporalities at the institutional timescale of labour market integration. The temporality of acceleration stems from the assumption that Finnish society cannot afford lengthy integration periods for immigrants, which is why integration processes should be fast and efficient. The second temporality represents integration as a linear and future-oriented process, reflecting the idea of Finland as a country of high education, where an individual’s competitiveness in the labour market is based on skills and qualifications. Linear temporality is implied in the planning of immigrants’ integration pathways during service encounters at street level. However, on a biographical timescale, the emphasis on linearity leads to trajectories of integration that contain long waits as well as periods of circularity and stagnation. The integration system is designed to service those who prioritize the slow accumulation of skills and competences, with less support available for those aiming for swift and non-linear transitions.

가야금병창의 태동과 발전과정

This paper identifies the development progress of Gayageum byeonchang, by grouping it into: initial phase; stagnation; revival; and transition. By doing so, it aims to shed light on the correlation between development progress of Gayageum byeongchang and its periodic changes. In the initial phase, coupled with modernization under Japanese colonial period, the first generation popular myeong-ins were active, whereas during the stagnation period, following the post-liberation political chaos and also the outbreak of the Korean War, substantial parts of Gayageum byeongchang repertoire were lost. In the revival period, the economic growth drove the demand in music, leading to groundworks for revival, and during transitional period, Gayageum byeongchang was modernized, and new repertoire were introduced of which continues until this day. In this paper, based on sound source list by respective period and performer list, popular songs of the time, and key active myeong-in will be analyzed. Based on such analysis, the study intends to comprehend the history and development progress of Gayageum byeongchang and its direction in going forward.

Effect of Sulfate Attack on the Expansion Behavior of Cement-Treated Aggregates.

The expansion induced by sulfate attack on cement-treated aggregates (SACA) is a well-known problem that can be solved. It causes obvious heaves in road bases and railway subgrades. In this paper, the effects of the sodium sulfate content, cement content, degree of compaction, sulfate types, attack types, aluminum ion supply, concentration of curing sulfate solution, and temperature on the expansion behavior induced by SACA were investigated over 60 days in the laboratory. Based on the Sobol sensitivity analysis method, the influence of the sensitivity of each factor on the expansion was quantitatively analyzed, and the dominant factor of expansion was proposed. Results show that sulfate content is the domain factor of expansion that is induced by SACA, and it presents a logarithmic function relationship with strain. The 0.5% sodium sulfate content is the minimum sulfate content which causes the expansion that is induced by SACA. When the sulfate content is less than 1%, the expansion induced by SACA is minor. When the sulfate content is between 1% and 3%, the expansion behavior is expressed in four stages as follows: rapid strain increase, followed by a short stagnation period, then a significant strain increase and, finally, constant strain. When the sulfate content is greater than 5%, there are two stages comprising the expansion behavior as follows: the rapid strain increases and constant strain occurs. Greater sulfate content, greater degree of compaction, and lower temperature have positive effects on the expansion induced by SACA. The cement content does not have a consistent effect on expansion behavior. Compared with a sodium sulfate attack, both the reaction rate and expansion of cement-treated aggregates that are attacked by gypsum are smaller, and the attack period is also longer. When the sulfate content is greater than 1%, the addition of kaolin promotes the progression of the expansion induced by SACA. A small amount of water is sufficient for the demand for the sulfate attack. When the sulfate content is at a certain level, the expansion induced by SACA that is under external attack is much smaller than the expansion that is under internal attack. This study is expected to serve as a reference for future research on the mechanics of SACA, and it attempts to provide theoretical support for amending expansions that are induced by SACA.

Penjajahan Negara-Negara Barat Atas Negara-Negara Islam

Islamic culture has been on a steady decline from the time of the prophet, who ushered in its golden age. A factor contributing to Islamic stagnation was the emergence of Western nations that colonized Islamic nations. In their imperialistic pursuit of power, wealth, culture, and politics, Western nations prey on Islamic nations. Consequently, it is intriguing to examine their colonization of Islamic nations. My goal in writing this paper is to gain a better understanding of the reasons behind western colonization of Islamic countries. I hope that all students in Indonesia, and particularly those at UINSU, will read it and be inspired to work towards a world where Islamic countries no longer face colonization from the West.. Library research is the methodology employed in this article. There was a lengthy period of Islamic stagnation due to the colonization of the archipelago by western powers. This was accompanied by devastating conflicts, economic and social inequalities, the loss of native culture and civilization, and the introduction of Christianity. Due in part to the fact that Islamic countries are unable to stand up to Western colonization on their own, Islam has been unable to advance in recent centuries. Economic, social, political, and legal decisions may all stem from the need for prior permission from the federal government in order to pass legislation pertaining to a state. A number of indigenous peoples' desires to secede from their colonial masters emerged in response to Western colonialism. Some of the colonized states that rose up in opposition to the occupying power were successful in becoming independent nations, while others were unable to do so due to the superior military might of the colonial power.

High efficiency and stable partial nitration achieved via gel immobilization

Long-term high efficiency and stable partial nitrification (PN) performance was achieved using gel-immobilized partial nitrifying bacteria. The PN characteristics of the filler under high and low ammonia nitrogen concentrations and low temperature were comprehensively studied and the rapid reactivation was achieved after reactor breakdown or long stagnation period. The results showed that the maximum ammonia oxidation rate was 66.8 mg•(L•h)−1 and the nitrite accumulation rate was above 95 % for the filler. Efficient and stable PN performance depends on the high abundance of ammonia-oxidizing bacteria (AOB) inside the filler and dynamically microbial community. In addition, the oxygen-limited zone and competition between the microorganisms inside the filler effectively inhibited the growth of nitrite oxidizing bacteria, and the sludge outside the filler assisted in this process, which supported the dominant position of AOB in fillers. This study provides a reliable technology for the practical application of the PN nitrogen removal process.

Income, stress, and sex ratios over 1895-2010

ABSTRACT The medical literature has shown that populations under high stress have a lower sex ratio at birth (i.e. number of males for every 100 females). In this paper, I examine the relationship between income, as a source of economic stress, and the sex ratio at a subnational level for the 1895–2010 period. For this, I use census microdata from Argentina -a developing country that experienced rapid growth at the end of the 19th century and stagnated in recent decades- and I estimate from a two-way fixed effects model that exploits the wide temporal and geographic variability in income. The results show that as per capita income increases, the sex ratio at birth also increases. In particular, for every US$ 1,000 increase in per capita income, the sex ratio increases between 0.3 and 0.6 points. These findings make it possible to quantify the lost boys (i.e. those boys who were not born due to high economic stress on their parents) and constitute a call for attention in favor of the implementation of prenatal care policies -especially in periods of stagnation or income decline- to maintain a more balanced sex ratio.

Идеальное в эпоху торжествующего мещанства. Историко-культурный контекст и актуальность философии Эвальда Ильенкова

The article is dedicated to the philosophy of Evald Ilyenkov, its historical and cultural context and its relevance today. Ilyenkov is known for his original solution to the problem of the ideal within the framework of Marxism. The concept of the ideal is the center of his philosophical teaching, from which he draws pedagogical, psychological, and aesthetic conclusions. In Soviet times, the concept of the ideal by Ilyenkov caused a discussion, in which David Dubrovsky opposed the philosopher and his school, defending the “subjectivity of the ideal.” In our opinion, this dispute reflected the opposition of two value systems in the Soviet civilization, one of which dominated in the era of the “thaw,” the other — in the “era of stagnation.” The “thaw” was ambivalent, along with elements of liberal Marxism, from which “perestroika” later grew, there was a tradition in it that went through Lenin to classical culture. “Stagnation” marked the victory of philistinism, the ideology of the black market, huckstering, cynicism, disappointment in ideals under the cover of hypocritical recognition of dogmatic officialdom. This correlated with the positivist denial of the universal Truth, the assertion of relativism, “the subjectivity of the ideal.” The long shadow of “stagnation” in the form of value relativism and cynicism also lies on modern, post-Soviet, peripheral capitalist Russian culture, and therefore the Ilyenkov’s philosophy of the ideal does not lose its relevance.

Coastal alterations influence deep water renewal in Norwegian sill fjords

Recent observations have heightened concerns that the reduced density of coastal water is leading to a decrease in the frequency of basin water renewal in Norwegian sill fjords. There are indications that coastal water is becoming lighter due to climate change. The renewal of fjord basin water constitutes the primary source of oxygenation in these fjords, and many sill fjords naturally undergo stagnation periods lasting up to several years. In this paper, we have mapped alterations in coastal water using time series data from hydrographic measurements along the coastline, utilizing them as input for a simplified two-layer fjord model.We demonstrate that the temperature has risen, salinity has decreased, and consequently, the density of coastal water has declined since approximately 1990. At a depth of 10 m, the rise in temperature and the reduction in salinity made similar contributions to the decrease in density. However, at depths of 50 and 100 m, the increasing temperature emerged as the primary factor. The density exhibited a more substantial decrease in the upper layers compared to the lower layers. Consequently, not only was the water less dense, but the stability of the water column had also increased.The estimated temperature in the fjord basins increased after 1990 in 98 out of 101 evaluated fjords, with an average increase of 0.6 °C. The altered coastal stratification had an impact on the estimated work against the buoyant forces in the fjord basins. In 78 out of the 101 fjords, the work against buoyant forces by diapycnal mixing increased. In most of the fjord basins where the work against buoyant forces increased, the rise was insufficient to compensate for the decreasing density at the coast. Consequently, basin water renewal occurred less frequently in 65 out of the 101 fjord basins along the Norwegian coast.

Challenges in learning foreign languages encountered by intermediate-level students

This article is dedicated to exploring and clarifying the challenges faced by intermediate-level learners aiming for advanced proficiency in a target language, but instead encountering a period of stagnation. Within this context, a survey of the studentsʼ expectations regarding learning outcomes revealed that the most highly valued achievement was the ability to conduct targeted searches on the Internet using their recently acquired language skills. Following closely was the recognition of the influential impact of fluent intercultural dialogue with foreigners as the second priority on the path to language proficiency. This capacity not only broadens professional horizons but also increases engagement in the virtual environment. Understanding studentsʼ needs is a fundamental task in education. To address this, we suggest a range of productive strategies and tools to evaluate intermediate-level learnersʼ needs. These include diagnostic evaluations, self-evaluation, needs analysis surveys, feedback monitoring, cultural competence assessment, learning style monitoring, technology usage and preferences, and continuous formative assessment. Applying these techniques allows educators to acquire a comprehensive understanding of studentsʼ requirements, inclinations, and obstacles. It empowers teachers to customize their pedagogical approaches and content, providing enhanced support to students navigating through the stagnation phase. Having determined studentsʼ expectations and the obstacles they faced at the intermediate level, the authors have drawn conclusions regarding the correlation between these factors, noting a direct dependency between them. The article proposes methods and approaches aimed at addressing the dissonance between learnersʼ expectations and demotivating difficulties. These approaches include a task-based approach, error correction, individualized feedback, cultural immersion, co-teaching for dual guidance, and peer collaboration. Additionally, it is suggested that to rectify occasional errors, teachers should engage students in methods involving open-ended questions. They should instruct students in skills relevant to effective conversational performance, such as opening conversations, turn-taking, interrupting, changing the subject, understanding adjacency pairs, and closing conversations.

ISLAMIC PURITANISM MOVEMENT OF MUHAMMAD IBN ‘ABD AL-WAHHAB

Around the 18th century, Muslims experienced a period of intellectual stagnation as a result of ijtihad, which appeared to have been tightly shut. Furthermore, heretical and khurafat traditions are becoming increasingly common. Consequently, Muslims drifted further away from the Quran's teachings and the Prophet's Sunnah. These kinds of circumstances motivated Muhammad ibn ‘Abd al-Wahhab to respond by attempting to restore the original spirit of Islamic revivalism (Tajdid) by going back to the pure teachings of Tawhid, as his predecessors, Ahmad bin Hanbal and Ibn Taymiyyah, had done previously. This paper aims to examine the characteristics of Muhammad ibn ‘Abd al-Wahhab’s purification of the Tauhid and his role in the establishment of the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, which was regarded as one of the most successful ideologies institutionalizing the puritanical Islamic revival has ever seen in the history of contemporary Islamic politics. This work applies qualitative methodology with a historical approach, carried out by collecting data from Ibn ‘Abd al-Wahhab’s book as a primary source and other related books, journals, and articles as secondary sources. The research found that Ibn ‘Abd al-Wahhab's tajdid began as a religious movement and rose to prominence after collaborating with Muhammad ibn Saud's political effort. After the foundation of the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia a century and a half later, this idea was successfully established as a state-owned ideology. The birth of the kingdom was inextricably connected to the growth of Nationalism in the Islamic world as a result of European colonialism.

Christian motives in Soviet cinema

The paper highlights the history of emergence and development of Christian motives in Soviet cinema, from the times of persecution against the Church in 1920–1930 up to the era of Perestroika. There is a difference in the perception of Christianity as the basis of traditional ethno-cultural identity and as the basis of universal moral values, which in both cases contributed to the gradual legitimization of Christian subjects in Soviet culture in spite of the multilevel system of ideological censorship. This paper analyzes the deep ideological trends in the evolution of Soviet culture, which allowed, on the one hand, the atheistic authorities themselves and, on the other hand, the experimenting filmmakers to address the topic of religion in general, Christianity in particular and specifically the Russian Orthodox Church in different ways in different periods of Soviet history. The illustrative examples of using various Christian symbols, Biblical quotations, events of religious history, the representation of the image of a Christian priest and a believer as such in Soviet films, as well as the increasingly noticeable appeal of Soviet filmmakers to Christian associations and allusions are also shown here. The author pays special attention to contradictory ideological trends during the three basic periods of Soviet history in the second half of the twentieth century: The Khrushchev Thaw, the Era of Stagnation and Perestroika. All three contributed to the legitimization of religious themes in Soviet cinema and determined the specifics of the attitude to religion in the late Soviet period. The films by such directors as Mikhail Romm, Marlen Khutsiev, Andrei Tarkovsky, Michael Kalik, Andrei Konchalovsky, Nikita Mikhalkov, Gleb Panfilov and others are considered in the paper as the most significant precedents. Hypotheses are put forward about further ideological strategies of the Soviet state regarding Orthodox Christianity, if the Communist Party had been able to retain its power.

Boiling Histotripsy Using Dual-Frequency Protocol on Murine Breast Tumor Model and Promotes Immune Activation.

Histotripsy is an ultrasound-guided, noninvasive, nonthermal ablation therapy that can mechanically lyse target tissues. There have been no reports of enhanced histotripsy for large-volume triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC). This study aims to verify the ability of a novel approach of dual-frequency mode combined with two-stage millisecond-length ultrasound pulses (DF-TS) to accelerate the treatment of murine subcutaneous 4T1 tumors and determine immune changes after treatment. A custom-designed 1.1-/2.2-MHz two-element confocal-annular array was used to treat approximately 6-mm tumors under ultrasound guidance and real-time monitoring. Two-stage millisecond-length ultrasound pulses were used to generate approximate cuboid ablation volumes (diagonal 5-6 mm) within each tumor, with a dose of 100 pulses/point. Immune effects were characterized by changes of pro-inflammatory cytokine levels and infiltration levels of immune cells. In all targeted treatment areas, bubble cloud activity was visualized by ultrasound monitoring. The novel protocol resulted in elliptical and controllable sized lesions, reducing the number of scanning points, and was generally well tolerated. After treatment, tumor growth experienced a seven-day stagnation period, the survival period of mice was prolonged, and the levels of pro-inflammatory cytokines and immune cell infiltration increased. This study demonstrates that DF-TS boiling histotripsy (BH) has a noninvasive, efficient, and precise ablation ability for TNBC and potentially enhances immune responses.

Critical Letter Writing and Deliberation During the Brezhnev Era

This article analyses letters sent by Soviet citizens to newspapers and authorities during the Brezhnev era, supposedly a period of political stagnation. Citizens wrote critical letters, individually and collectively, signed and anonymously, to have problems solved. Authorities responded to citizen concerns, which were mostly very specific and non-systemic, and also used the letters to monitor public opinion. The practice of letter writing in the Soviet Union in this period enabled citizens to hold authorities to account while also providing leaders with the opportunity to legitimise their authority by taking action.