Stages Of Moral Development Research Articles

Reconciling Competing Tensions in Ethical Systems

Ethical codes and the systems in which they are situated are complex and intricate, making them difficult for both academicians and practitioners to research and understand. Through a qualitative research lens we examine the honor and ethics system at the United States Military Academy at West Point. Our findings suggest that the complexity of ethical systems can be better understood by examining the competing tensions that simultaneously work for and against ethical systems. We find that organizational members at West Point engage in counterintuitive thinking along with reframing and repositioning to negotiate some of these tensions. This approach provides feedback loops that steer the organization away from future ethical failures and long-term ethical declines. Our findings build on and extend several organizational and ethical theories to include environmental scanning, moral awareness, peer justice, the stages of moral development, and hyper-resiliency. We discuss implications for both theory and practice.

Positive mental health: a research agenda

Vaillant provides a thoughtful review of seven models for conceptualizing positive mental health. He proposes that the best way to understand mental health is to conduct longitudinal studies of multiple populations, in culturally diverse settings, using instruments that assess multiple conceptualizations. Looking to future, I agree with Vaillant that there is a need for theoretical and empirical work to establish the most useful conceptualization of positive mental health. On the theoretical side, there is a need to clarify and integrate the current overlapping but distinct con- structs into a broader overarching framework. On the empirical side, there is a need to develop and refine instruments for measuring positive mental health constructs at multiple levels, including self-report, behavioral ratings, psychophysiological responding, and neurobiological functioning. There is also a need to link research on positive mental health to the psychology of normal and abnormal functioning across the lifespan. In particular, it would be valuable to determine the links between positive mental health and intelligence, temperament, personality traits, self-regulation and attachment, through genetic, neurobiological, psychometric and developmental research. Positive mental health must be distinguished from intelligence as psychometrically defined, and from other forms of intelligence in models such as Gardner’s multiple intelligences 1. Clearly a high IQ and positive mental health are not synonymous. Nevertheless, mental health and intelligence (as defined by IQ tests) both involve effective problem-solving and adaptation to the environment. An important research question concerns the nature and extent of the overlap between psychometrically assessed intelligence and positive mental health across the lifespan. Vaillant points out that positive mental health has been equated with social and emotional intelligence. There is also an argument that existential or spiritual intelligence, or indeed an advanced stage of moral development 2, may be central to positive mental health, given the well-established correlation between religious practices and well-being 3. It remains unclear what the relationships are between positive mental health and other forms of intelligence, such as musical, kinesthetic and naturalistic. Similar arguments may be made for the constructs of giftedness and creativity. It is plausible that certain individuals may be exceptionally gifted or creative in the way they address issues relevant to their own positive mental health. Implicit in temperament and personality trait theories is a conception of positive mental health as involving a particular type of profile. For example, infants with easy temperaments may be viewed as having better mental health than those with difficult or behaviorally inhibited temperaments. With trait theories, such as the five factor theory of personality, individuals with high levels of emotional stability, extraversion, agreeableness, conscientiousness and openness to experience may be viewed as having better mental health than those with other profiles. Vaillant alludes to this type of approach in his section on mental health as the presence of multiple human strengths. However, I wish to underline the importance of linking research on positive mental health to extensive existing knowledge about temperament and personality traits 4. A vast literature on self-regulation throws light on factors relevant to the capacity to persist in motivated action while tolerating distress 5. This capacity may be an aspect of positive mental health, and is probably related to adaptive defense mechanisms discussed in Vaillant’s section on resilience. Research on self-regulation and positive mental health should be an important future priority. Studies of attachment have shown that secure and insecure attachment styles may be identified across the life- span, with secure attachment styles being associated with better psychological adjustment 6. Individuals with secure attachment styles, as a result of sensitive parenting in early life, develop internal working models of self and others that entail an expectation that others will reliably be available to meet attachment needs. This trusting disposition is arguably a key component of positive mental health, and an area requiring further investigation. An integration of current models of positive mental health addressed in Vaillant’s paper into an overarching framework, and research linking such an integrative model to intelligence, temperament, personality traits, self-regulation and attachment will ground our understanding of positive mental health within current knowledge about normal lifespan development, and provide a scientific basis for developing intervention programs to promote positive mental health.

Moral Development and Student Motivation in Moral Education: A Singapore Study

Recent world events such as the threat of terrorism and the global economic crises have rekindled an interest in ethics and values education. This study, conducted in Singapore, combines a Kohlbergian approach to the assessment of moral judgement with a framework based on the self-determination theory to assess the motivational regulations of adolescent students towards civics and moral education (CME). The findings show that the Singaporean students' development of moral reasoning follows the trend prescribed for their age groups in Kohlberg's theory. With regard to their motivation in CME, students showed a moderate degree of autonomous motivation, although the correlations between moral development stage and motivation in CME were low.

Moral Philosophy and the Confucian Tradition ed. by Fang Xudong (review)

Reviewed by: Moral Philosophy and the Confucian Tradition ed. by Fang Xudong Li Guangxiao (bio) and Liu Liangjian (bio) Fang Xudong 方旭東, editor. Moral Philosophy and the Confucian Tradition 道德哲學與儒家傳統. Shanghai 上海: Huadong Shifan Daxue Chubanshe 華東師範大學出版社, 2010. i + 388 pp. Paperback ¥78, isbn 978-7-5617-8325-2. Moral Philosophy and the Confucian Tradition (MPCT hereafter), edited by Fang Xudong, aims to introduce to mainland China the significant findings on Chinese philosophy made by scholars overseas. The book consists of twenty-one essays, which draw upon Confucianism as they work through various issues within moral philosophy. All essays are selected from the well-known journal Philosophy East and West. Since its establishment in 1951, Philosophy East and West has been a key English-language journal for the study of Chinese philosophy. Therefore, the publication of MPCT is undoubtedly a new achievement in translating overseas study on Chinese philosophy. Roughly speaking, essays in MPCT can be divided into three groups. Group 1 examines core concepts in Confucian ethics such as ren (仁), li (禮), jing (敬), cheng (誠), zide (自得), and gewu (格物). The examination involves many novel readings. For instance, Karyn Lai claims that li plays different roles and exhibits different degrees of flexibility in the three stages of moral development (pp. 145–159). However, Lai’s treatment of moral development as a process of skill training easily reminds us of the Dreyfus fivestage model of adult skill acquisition: novice, advanced beginner, competence, proficiency, and expertise.1 We could safely say that Lai is implicitly drawing upon Western philosophy to study ancient Chinese philosophy. Group 2 engages in a comparative study of Chinese and Western philosophy on more particular subjects, including the ethics of respect in Confucius and Kant; the public good in Confucius, Dewey, and Rorty; and the issue of finding the Way in Kierkegaard and Confucius. [End Page 264] Since the Indian scholar Brajen-dranath Seal (1864–1938) began to advocate comparative philosophy in his Comparative Studies in Vaishnavism and Christianity in 1899, which the French philosopher Paul Masson-Oursel (1882–1956) echoed in his La philosophie comparée in 1923, the comparative study of philosophy has made significant contributions to the mutual understanding of Western and Eastern philosophy traditions. However, comparative study as a methodology is not satisfactory, since it easily leads to a so-called objective and detached observation of the objects compared (for instance, Confucius and Kant) in order to discover their similarities and/or differences. For instance, David B. Wong tells us: “The contrast between reason and emotion has played a crucial role in the moral psychology of the Western ethical tradition.” To the contrary, “Mencius held a picture of the role of emotion in moral motivation that militates against a general separation of reason from emotion”2 (p. 262). Although this finding is not uninteresting, David B. Wong has to go beyond comparison if he attempts to develop a “third alternative to Humean and Kantian theories of practical reason”3 (p. 272). Moreover, if there is an announced or tacit rank between objects compared, a comparative study will be too enthusiastic to understand the object of the lower rank from the perspective of the higher. In a global age, it is necessary for us to go further from comparison to dialogue, which is exactly the approach that other essays in group 3 take. They discuss the significance of traditional Confucianism in attempts to solve contemporary ethical and political issues such as moral education, morality and human nature, biological control, proceduralism, liberal rights, and the balance between community and liberty. Group 3 contains quite a few brilliant ideas. For example, Seung-hwan Lee raises the problem of the danger of a liberal morality, which has resulted in the immoderate practice of rights: “[A]n individual’s bullheaded insistence on rights under some inappropriate circumstances may bring about the danger of ‘a right to do wrong’ or ‘rights damnably insensitive’”4 (p. 59). To solve the problem, he suggests a coordination of a right-based morality of liberalism and Confucianism, which advocates a morality based on communitarian virtues. This suggestion is really appealing despite the fact that his argument is not absolutely beyond dispute. By “Confucian virtues,” Lee mainly means “the virtues of modesty...

Moral Judgments of Modern Children and Teenagers in Russia

Social interaction, rules and regulations for shared activities, moral development of children and its manifestations have long been the focus of attention among Russian and foreign researchers and educators, yet there still remain many open issues. The goal of this paper is to outline possible means, which would help evaluate the level of children's collaborative skills and, consequently, enable educators to target communication skills training more precisely. Moral judgments shared by children are regarded as manifestation of values and standards regulating their collaboration (joint efforts).A Research MethodThis research is based on prototypical study by Jean Piaget and his colleagues (Piaget, 2006), which 1) reveals changes in child's attitude to rule regulating his activity in the process of mastering specific (cooperative) type of teamwork (play); 2) exposes changes in initial norms as children introduce new rules in the process of joint activity (collective play); and 3) describes specific characteristics of these processes for different age groups. Employing the basic method of J. Piaget (suggesting children concrete situations for discussion), we established more intricate procedure for processing their answers: all judgments expressed by the children were recorded on the tape. Hence, we could include into our analysis all versions of answering offered by the children, not only Piaget's definite (non-ambiguous) judgments. We also introduced more rigid criteria for classification of the input data. Data analysis took into consideration the following: 1) whether the direct answer corresponded to certain type of norms; and 2) whether the appendant argumentation corresponded to the direct answer. Taking all these into account, we constructed the following categorical grid for the analysis of moral judgments:1. The so-called first type of norms ( See Appendix 1).2. The non-first type of norms, which includes: 2.1. A type of norms; 2.2. A third type of norms; 2.3. Particular answers named for the purposes of our study of the other 'non-first' type, which includes direct corresponding answers without argumentation as well as corresponding answers with argumentation which content is not related to norms of collective organization. 2.4. Dubious, ambivalent answers: a) dubious answers (and/or); b) comments which change in the process of reflection; c) blended answers, where the answer and its argumentation relate to different categories; d) answers of special type: a constructive denial + formal but not actual consent;To proceed further we must clarify the terms used in description. In Piaget's prototypical study only non-ambiguous answers were subjected to statistical analysis, and respondents' answers were categorized through descriptive oppositions, which enabled J. Piaget to distinguish two stages in moral development: heteronomous morality and This categorizing paradigm clearly demonstrates not only Piaget's principles as researcher but also his own cultural background. Switzerland is country where society is traditionally seen as consolidation of subjects, and this could well be the reason why Piaget called the second stage of moral development the autonomous morality. In Russian culture (where systemic networks and structures tend to seek unification through submission), this term may not be appropriate. This consideration has brought us to introduce modified implication of Piaget's normative categories, naming heteronomous morality as the first normative set of standards, and morality as type of norms, with certain specifications for attribution of the latter.Firstly, the study revealed particular category of answers, which we named third type. It covers judgments made by children and teenagers, which began with phrasing: Contrary to the rules, I think... I believe... …

Educational software reflecting two philosophical approaches to ethics education

Ethics education can vary considerably in its instructional strategies based on differences in the theoretical positions underlying the approach to moral development being stressed. Two such approaches are the 'justice' approach as exemplified by Kohlberg's six stages of moral development, and the 'care ethic' approach as exemplified by Gilligan's work on empathy as a base for moral decision-making. Each of these approaches can be demonstrated through different instructional strategies in the ethics education course, but each strategy is often difficult to execute in practice, given time and resource constraints.DOI:10.1080/0968776940020202

Will Graduating Year Accountancy Students Cheat in Examination? : A Malaysian Case

Due to a series of high profile accounting scandals and corporate collapses such as Enron, World.Com and Andersen, ethical conduct has been widely recognized as a crucial element in accounting profession and education. The growing concern over the ethics of professionals has also called for more academic research into this critical area. Our study aims at assessing ethical behaviors of the future accounting professionals (i.e. final year accounting students) in Malaysia. This study which uses questionnaire survey examined the students’ ethical attitudes as to whether they would act unethically in an examination. Also, their attitudes towards whistleblowing – if they become aware of such unethical conduct were examined. A vast majority of students (73 per cent), decided to be on the safe side – neither being purely unethical nor whistleblowers. Of the students, 11 per cent chose to become whistleblowers. While only 16 per cent would act unethically in exam, the percentage significantly declined once the risk of being caught was introduced. This indicates that students have not moved further from the first level of Kohlberg’s stages of moral development which highly depends on the punishment and penalty in order to behave ethically. Results also reveal that students with good academic achievement were less likely to cheat in exam. Furthermore, a larger proportion of male students as compared to female tend to behave unethically. Overall, the study indicates favorable results since the majority of respondents would not prefer to indulge in unethical behavior, although they are not being purely ethical.

From self interest to public interest: Promoting higher levels of business ethics

While there has been widescale acknowledgement of the importance of business ethics, it is evident that many businesses still conduct themselves unethically. This paper adapts Lawrence Kohlberg’s study on moral development to provide insight into the different levels of impact that self interest and public interest may have on promoting higher levels of business ethics. By drawing on Kohlberg’s stages of moral development, an attempt is made to show the importance of public interest in promoting higher levels of business ethics. Attention is devoted to the capacity of businesses driven by public interest over self interest in curbing unethical conduct. While some may argue that businesses are notably motivated by self interest, there is also evidence that businesses also act for moral purposes primarily out of concern for the public. It is suggested that at stage 2 of the preconventional level of cognitive moral development which can be associated with self interest, business ethics is promoted at a lower level. However, at stage 4 of the conventional level which can be associated with public interest, business ethics is promoted at a higher level.

The Practice of Interdisciplinarity

AbstractThere is a rocky chasm between the promise of interdisciplinary research and successful interdisciplinary research practice. As a group of researchers from New Zealand, based in five different disciplines (consumer psychology, economics, sociology, law, engineering), we share an interest in the behaviour of energy consumers, but understand behaviour through very different lenses. Initially we were mutually baffled by our discipline-specific languages and diverse theoretical stances. Over a period of time, however, we developed ways of working together to realise the benefits of collaboration. In this paper we reflect on the differences between disciplinarity and interdisciplinarity, and discuss the practices we have adopted that support interdisciplinarity. These include the importance of trust, focusing on a problem, being aware of limits, sharing a common intellectual framework, testing ideas across the disciplines, and practicing interdisciplinarity at every level of the research project. We suggest that not all people are comfortable with interdisciplinary work, and draw parallels with Kohlberg’s ‘stages of moral development’, in that interdisciplinarians need to be ‘post-conventional’ in the sense that they do not feel bound by the conventions of their own discipline and recognise the legitimacy and value of other perspectives and methods of inquiry.

Business ethics in Islam: the glaring gap in practice

PurposeThe purpose of this paper is to examine and discuss business ethics from an Islamic perspective.Design/methodology/approachDescriptive, analytical, and comparative analyses are used.FindingsThe study reveals several factors that affect Muslims' ethical behavior, including legal, organizational, and individual factors. However, there are factors that affect manager's unethical behavior; for example, stage of moral development, family influence and peer influence. The paper outlines some of the ethical guidelines that should be manifested in a Muslim manager, such as being trustful, honest, and consultative. Finally, the paper highlights some of the moral issues that seem to be common between Islam and other religions such as no lying, stealing, fraud, or deceit.Research limitations/implicationsThe paper provides insights into Islamic work ethics for Western managers and employees, enabling them to work more effectively with Islamic managers, employees, and business partners. It is believed that the paper will provide a better understanding of Muslim societies in general and Islamic managers in particular. It also has some implications for Islamic managers and employees who have to deal with ethical dilemmas as well as situations that offer potential benefits or gains and are considered unethical on a daily basis. It is also hoped that this paper will reinforce managers' Islamic behavior and make them more aware of the code of conduct on business.Practical implicationsThe findings presented in this research can be used by Western managers, employees, business partners, and academicians as a guide to Islamic work ethics in Muslim societies.Originality/valueThe paper makes a contribution to the literature on Islamic work ethics. It is believed to be one of few studies investigating the issue of management ethics in Islam. The findings presented will be of genuine interest to Western and non‐Western managers, employees, and academicians.

The Application Of Kohlbergs Moral Development Model To College Students Technology Ethics Decisions

This study examined undergraduate university students’ (n=121) responses to six ethical dilemmas within the realm of information technology (IT). Using a framework based on Kohlberg’s stages of moral development, the study evaluated the level of moral development as demonstrated in these responses. An apriori coding system was used to analyze the data. Two researchers independently assigned coding to the written responses in order to increase interrater reliability. The results are presented by student classification (freshman, sophomore, junior, or senior) and each individual scenario. They indicate a strong tendency for students to use the “good person” form of reasoning. This reasoning, however, did vary by scenario.

Individual, Team, and Coach Predictors of Players' Likelihood to Aggress in Youth Soccer

The purpose of this study was to examine personal and socioenvironmental factors of players' likelihood to aggress. Participants were youth soccer players (N = 258) and their coaches (N = 23) from high school and club teams. Players completed the Judgments About Moral Behavior in Youth Sports Questionnaire (JAMBYSQ; Stephens, Bredemeier, & Shields, 1997), which assessed athletes' stage of moral development, team norm for aggression, and self-described likelihood to aggress against an opponent. Coaches were administered the Coaching Efficacy Scale (CES; Feltz, Chase, Moritz, & Sullivan, 1999). Using multilevel modeling, results demonstrated that the team norm for aggression at the athlete and team level were significant predictors of athletes' self likelihood to aggress scores. Further, coaches' game strategy efficacy emerged as a positive predictor of their players' self-described likelihood to aggress. The findings contribute to previous research examining the socioenvironmental predictors of athletic aggression in youth sport by demonstrating the importance of coaching efficacy beliefs.

The Engineering and Science Issues Test (ESIT): A Discipline-Specific Approach to Assessing Moral Judgment

To assess ethics pedagogy in science and engineering, we developed a new tool called the Engineering and Science Issues Test (ESIT). ESIT measures moral judgment in a manner similar to the Defining Issues Test, second edition, but is built around technical dilemmas in science and engineering. We used a quasi-experimental approach with pre- and post-tests, and we compared the results to those of a control group with no overt ethics instruction. Our findings are that several (but not all) stand-alone classes showed a significant improvement compared to the control group when the metric includes multiple stages of moral development. We also found that the written test had a higher response rate and sensitivity to pedagogy than the electronic version. We do not find significant differences on pre-test scores with respect to age, education level, gender or political leanings, but we do on whether subjects were native English speakers. We did not find significant differences on pre-test scores based on whether subjects had previous ethics instruction; this could suggest a lack of a long-term effect from the instruction.

Professional ethics in pharmacy practice: developing a psychometric measure of moral reasoning

To develop and validate a psychometric measure of cognitive moral development in professional ethics in pharmacy. Pharmacy practice in Australia. A psychometric instrument, the Professional Ethics in Pharmacy (PEP) test, was developed and validated following a systematic procedure. The theoretical foundation of the instrument was based on a hypothesised theory of cognitive moral development in professional ethics, which was integrated into a selection of scenarios experienced in practice by pharmacists in NSW, Australia. The PEP, along with the well established DIT test, was mailed in the form of a questionnaire to a randomly selected sample of 1,500 practising pharmacists. Data collected from returned questionnaires were statistically analysed to establish validity and reliability of the instrument. The P-score calculated for each participant from DIT and PEP data and defined as a measure of principled moral reasoning, represented the main outcome measure for statistical testing. Pearson's correlation coefficient was used to determine the strength of the relationship of the PEP with the DIT (regarded as the "gold standard") in order to establish criterion and concurrent validity. Factor analysis was used to investigate construct validity. Cronbach's Alpha, a measure of reliability of the instrument, was used for indicating internal consistency. Linear regression models further investigated construct validity in relation to predictors of moral reasoning. Face and content validity were established by pilot and peer review. Pearson's coefficient of 0.53 indicated an acceptable level of concurrent validity. Factor analysis yielded factors closely related to the theoretical stages of cognitive moral development hypothesised, which indicated construct validity. Cronbach's alpha of 0.75 demonstrated the reliability of the instrument, and linear regression models provided further evidence of construct validity. The PEP was established as a robust instrument on several dimensions of validity and reliability. The validated PEP test has the potential to provide the pharmacy profession with valuable information for use education and research. The validation process also provided evidence supporting the hypothesis that moral reasoning in professional ethics in pharmacy is a developmental process, which has profound implications for furthering the understanding of professional behaviour.

Discerning the Stages of Moral Development – By Thomas W. Devereaux

Discerning the Stages of Moral Development – By Thomas W. Devereaux

A Comparison of Moral Reasoning Stages Using a Model of Hierarchical Complexity

Empirical evidence has demonstrated the validity and reliability of moral development instruments such as the Defining Issues Test (DIT) and Moral Judgment Test (MJT). Rasch item reliability for each was .95. A newer instrument generated using the Model of Hierarchical Complexity had item reliability of .97. Rasch scores of responses to each instruments' items correlated well with the items' measure of hierarchical complexity, r = .286, .372, .557, .767. Test items used to measure moral reasoning were significantly correlated. In general, stage of moral development did not predict political affiliation or voting, supporting Kohlberg's claim that structure, not content, underlies stage.

An Economic Analysis of Academic Dishonesty and Its Deterrence in Higher Education

The underlying contract in higher education is that students, in exchange for demonstration of individual skills and predetermined levels of understanding, are evaluated objectively by faculty and rewarded by the reflection of a grade-level performance on their permanent records. In addition to providing a system that can reflect mastery or training in particular subject matters, grading and student evaluation mechanisms, with their rewards and punishments, prepare students for the workplace and its market forces: good performance is rewarded and poor performance and dishonesty are punished. Truthful and candid evaluations in the academy are a form of training that can help students to make correct choices as they progress through the stages of moral development. Evolutionary development toward, hopefully, correct choices related to academic integrity also helps students develop or reaffirm their sense of justice as they develop morally to assume responsibility for their own actions and accept consequences for their poor performance and poor choices.

Adam Smith and the Stages of Moral Development

The writer explores Adam Smith's Theory of Moral Sentiments, where Smith presents a rich and provocative account of morality. The writer offers an explication of Smith's moral psychology as a stage theory of moral development, with the intention of generating critical points on both mattes of detail and larger implications.

Development of moral motivation from childhood to early adulthood1

Luhmann, a prominent exponent of social systems theory, maintains that in modern, functionally differentiated societies morality is neither possible nor necessary. Against this claim it is argued that democracies want citizens with moral motivation. In contrast to Kohlberg, moral motivation is conceptualised as independent of stage of moral development, i.e. of the complexity of sociocognitive reasoning capacity. It is defined as willingness to do what one knows to be right even if that entails personal costs. This definition agrees with children's understanding. Moral motivation is assessed using emotion attributions. As empirically demonstrated, emotions indicate value commitments and action dispositions and this allows a motivational interpretation of the ‘happy victimiser phenomenon’, i.e. younger children's tendency to expect wrongdoers to feel good. Drawing on a longitudinal study, the development of moral motivation from childhood to early adulthood is described. There is a steady increase in sample means, yet individual trajectories vary widely. Possible determinants as well as some educational implications are briefly discussed. 1. This is the text of the 19th Lawrence Kohlberg Memorial Lecture presented at the 32nd annual conference of the Association for Moral Education, University of Fribourg, Switzerland, 6 July 2006.

Different crime types and moral reasoning development in young offenders compared with non-offender controls

On empirical and theoretical grounds, it is argued that different patterns of moral reasoning development and moral values may characterise different types of offender. Male offenders in six youth correctional institutions in Taiwan and controls from one junior and two senior high schools participated in the study. Self-reported criminal histories were classified according to their characteristic offence type (Drug, Violent, or Theft). Overall moral reasoning development stage, as well as the five individual moral values, were significantly less mature in offenders than in controls despite the offenders’ mean age being higher. The moral value Life differentiated crime types since this was less mature in the violent offenders. Moral reasoning cognitive–developmental delay models were only of limited usefulness in differentiating offender types but were good at differentiating offenders from non-offenders. It is suggested that a more sophisticated understanding of the role of moral reasoning development in the study of crime is needed.