Architectural Design Stage Research Articles

An adaptive predicted percentage dissatisfied model based on the air-conditioner turning-on behaviors in the residential buildings of China

To ease the Predicted Percentage of Dissatisfied (PPD) measurement and calculation and consider the adaptive behaviors of residents, the present research proposed an adaptive thermal discomfort evaluation model: Air-conditioner based Adaptive Predicted Percentage of Dissatisfied (aaPPD). First, the indoor temperature, outdoor temperature, and humidity data of the residential buildings in five cities within three climate regions in China were collected. Second, through the air-conditioner-turning-on (ATO) judgment algorithm, the data from when the air conditioner was turned on could be extracted from the original data, and then transformed via the Monte Carlo sampling method to obtain a dataset of the ATO percentage of residents within specific indoor and outdoor environments. Finally, a nonlinear model was built according to this dataset. The final R2 of this model was 0.833. This model utilized data from resident ATO behaviors as the basis for determining the thermal discomfort and avoiding the psychological impact on the subjects when filling out the thermal sensation vote questionnaire. Moreover, when compared with the PPD model, the aaPPD model simplified the variables to obtain the calculation parameters more conveniently and ease the thermal discomfort testing and predictions, which could allow for better adaptation to the early architectural design stage working characteristics.

Building performance simulation tools as part of architectural design: breaking the gap through software simulation

In recent years, there have been numerous initiatives regarding the incorporation of building performance simulation tools (BPSTs) in the field of architecture, but unfortunately they have not been considered in updates of the curricula of building designers' careers at a global level. This paper presents an example of the use of BPSTs in the decision making of architectural models, after confirming that there is a lack of knowledge regarding these programs in architecture classrooms. As a result, based on the literature review, improvement aspects and recommendations have been identified and consequences for future research have been foreseen. To this end, the growing trend in the use of these tools has been analyzed, both in terms of the impact on architectural design and their use by architects. The authors' perceptions led us to confirm that the disconnection between BPSTs and architectural students can easily be diminished and alleviated through the teaching–learning process. We also noted the importance of energy modelling in the initial stages of architectural design. In addition, a proposed format for the application of BPSTs to architectural design for architects is presented.

Research and Discussion on Design Method of Energy-saving Architecture Oriented to the Full Life Cycle

The full life cycle architectural design requires to start at the design stage, fully consider the important links in each stage of architectural design, construction as well as operation management and optimize the design of green energy saving on the basis of the concept of taking the whole situation into consideration. Different from traditional architectural design, the building energy-saving design oriented to the full life cycle has higher design requirements for the integrity, coordination, integration and parallelism of the project life cycle. In this paper, it starts from the design concepts of energy saving, environmental protection and green to discuss the methods of energy saving and emission reduction in architectural design. It aims to provide some references for green architectural design.

Effectiveness of passive design strategies in responding to future climate change for residential buildings in hot and humid Hong Kong

The application of passive design strategies is crucial at the early architectural design stage for building energy use minimization. However, the time-varying effectiveness of passive design strategies in responding to future climate change in hot and humid climates are rather limited in the literature. This paper aims to examine the dynamic effectiveness of passive design strategies for residential buildings in Hong Kong under the context of future climate change. Using the newly developed hourly weather data and adaptive comfort standard model, the dynamic effectiveness of viable passive design strategies for residential buildings are evaluated over time in the 21st century by plotting Givoni building bio-climatic charts (BBCC) and simulation-based sensitivity analyses in a validated EnergyPlus model. Results show that solar protection strategies are still the highly sensitive strategies for building energy performance and the effectiveness of external windows’ airtightness is expected to increase up to 329% by the end of this century, whereas the cooling potential of ventilation utilization will significantly decrease over time. When the different combination of sensitive passive design parameters is implemented onto the baseline residential building model for different climate scenarios, the annual and peak cooling load can be reduced up to 56.7% and 64.5%, respectively.

An approximate method to identify torsion caused by infill walls through geometric specifications of architectural plans

A significant part of torsional effects in buildings is due to disregarding the arrangement of infill walls during the design. This is a challenging issue since on the one hand the structural engineers do not usually consider infill walls in modeling a structure, while on the other hand the architects do not pay attention to the seismic behavior of infill walls during architectural design. In this research, an approximate method for identifying the torsion caused by infill walls was proposed to be used at the final stages of basic architectural design, which is based on the geometric specifications of architectural plans and does not require structural specifications. For this purpose, through a typological study of common mid-rise residential buildings in Tehran, 20 buildings were selected, modeled, and analyzed, with 117 different layouts of infill walls, and their torsional behavior was evaluated based on criteria of seismic codes. Finally, according to the obtained results, an approximate method was developed. Evaluation of this method on the analyzed models showed that 96% of them with a risk of torsion were identifiable by this method, and in 98% of models the results were reliable, so the proposed method has a high degree of accuracy.

Wind flow around buildings of basic shapes with and without a wind-adaptive envelope

Abstract Together with the natural environment, the built, artificial environment represents a barrier to the wind fluxes. Especially in the densely built cities, the wind flow pattern and the wind speed are considerably altered by buildings, which can lead to zones of an accelerated wind and turbulent flow. Incorporating the wind into the early conceptual stage of architectural design, this reciprocal interaction of the built environment and the wind fluxes can be analyzed and controlled to create zones of calmer wind around buildings. Presently, building envelopes are designed to withstand extreme load cases, which, however, demands thicker and bulkier structures. The subject of this study is a proposal and investigation of a lightweight, adaptive building envelope, which is able of a local, passive morphing in the wind. This local shape change leads to creating a textured, dimpled building surface; the final shape depends on the wind direction and force. The wind-induced dimpled surface influences the wind flow around the building, as well as surface wind pressure acting on the building, and the drag force. The analysis of three fundamental building shapes using the CFD (Computational Fluid Dynamics) simulation is performed for the variants with and without the proposed adaptive envelope. Concluding from the wind simulations, the wind flow can be decelerated, the turbulence reduced, and calmer zones around buildings can be created, by certain conditions. Moreover, the envelope, morphing with the instant wind force, can contribute to the reduction of the surface wind suction on buildings. Strikingly, the dimpled geometry of the wind-adaptive envelope can decrease the wind drag force by up to 28.4 %, which is again dependent on the global form, as well as the initial wind speed.

Review on Design Strategies of Energy Saving Office Building with Evaporative Cooling in Tropical Region

This research reviews the theories and design of energy-saving office buildings that apply evaporative cooling concepts to inhibit solar heat and improve natural cooling. The limited land in urban areas forces the building orientation facing East-West to increase building heat gain in tropical regions. This research is interesting because evaporative cooling is rarely found in office building design, especially in tropical areas. The method used is literature searching (theory, journal, and president) related to the energy-saving building (passive design) and passive cooling with evaporative cooling techniques. A review of design strategies can be used as a reference for general criteria applied at the design stage of office building architectural design. As a limitation, questions are needed to find related theories such as (1) what are the factors of building heat control and the criteria required in designing energy-saving office building (2) how to apply evaporative cooling techniques to design the energysaving office building. Solar heat is a key factor in building heat gain. So it must be noticed to control building heat to protect heat transfer into buildings. The results of the design energy saving office buildings in the tropical region have required the application of passive designs such as building orientation, building core placement, shading elements, cross ventilation, natural lighting, producing shape, and application of evaporative cooling with consideration of wind direction and hottest side due to solar radiation

Estimation model for natural ventilation by wind force considering wind direction and building orientation for low-rise building in China

Building natural ventilation can effectively prevent the building from overheating and eliminate indoor pollutants, including viral aerosols and volatile organic compounds, without consuming energy. Natural ventilation by wind force is influenced by many factors, making it difficult to calculate accurately. This increases the complexity of designing natural ventilation systems. In this study, we use a computational fluid dynamics simulation and wind tunnel verification to determine the wind pressure coefficients of each facade of a cube-shaped building and draw their corresponding curves. Subsequently, we input the climate data of 31 major cities in China to analyse their potential for natural ventilation. The results show that although some cities have long ventilation hours, the wind-forced ventilation rate is relatively low. For example, cities such as Guangzhou and Nanning that were previously considered suitable for natural ventilation have relatively small ventilation rates that may reduce the cooling capacity of natural ventilation. The ratio, 0.12, of the average airflow rate to the local average wind velocity should be used to estimate the wind-ventilation rate during the early stages of architectural design to determine the total windows area in every facade.

UAV + BIM: Incorporation of Photogrammetric Techniques in Architectural Projects with Building Information Modeling Versus Classical Work Processes

The current computer technology facilitates the processing of large volumes of information in architectural design teams, in parallel with recent advances in-flight automation in unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) along with lower costs, facilitates their use to capture aerial photographs and obtain orthophotographs and 3D models of relief and terrain textures. With these technologies, 3D models can be produced that allow different geometric configurations of the distribution of construction elements on the ground to be analyzed. This article presents the process of implementation in a terrain integrated into the early stages of architectural design. A methodology is proposed that covers the detailed capture of terrain, the relationship with the architectural design environment, and its implementation on the plot. As a novelty, an inverse perspective to the remaining disciplines is presented, from the inside of the object to the outside. The proposed methodology for the use of UAVs integrates terrain capture, generation of the 3D mesh, superimposition of environmental realities and architectural design using building information modeling (BIM) technologies. In addition, it represents the beginning of a line of research on the implementation of the plot and the layout of foundations using UAVs. The results obtained in the study carried out in three different projects comparing traditional technologies with the integration of UAVs + BIM show a clear improvement in the second option. The use of new technologies applied to the execution and control of work not only improves accuracy but also reduces errors and saves time, which undoubtedly indicates significant savings in costs and deviations in the project.

에너지 절감을 위한 병원의 패시브 디자인적 요소 연구

Purpose: Passive design strategies are critical to achieve zero energy consumption. Since hospitals are one of the most energy-consuming buildings, precise strategies are needed for its efficient medical planning, infection control, and well connection of functional spaces. This research analyzes the passive design elements for hospitals in an architectural design stage. Method: Analysis of research papers for the hospitals extracts the passive design elements related to architectural space and design. Result: The seven key passive design elements for a hospital design are established. 1. The shape of the hospital is related to the location of departments. 2. Optimization of the size of the sun shade device in a patient room considering the daylight factor and the energy-saving. 3. Relationship between the mass shapes and the orientation of the inpatient tower. 4. Adequate Window to Wall Ratio(WWR) for a patient room. 5. Consideration of the corridor type and daylighting for the inpatient tower. 6. Patient room configurations depend on the bathroom location. 7. Natural ventilation using internal and external shafts.

Research on the building energy efficiency design strategy of Chinese universities based on green performance analysis

China has a large number of existing public buildings and rapidly growing energy demand of public buildings. For this reason, the government and the relevant administrative sections have issued many policies, regulations, and incentives to decelerate the growth of the energy consumption of public buildings. However, the diverse types of buildings, as well as different design standards and construction technologies, create large differences in the energy consumption rules and energy efficiency standards of different buildings. The total number of universities in China is approximately 2845, with 13 types of buildings. The annual energy consumption is nearly 30 million tons of standard coal, and the water consumption is nearly 4 million tons. The total energy consumption accounts for 8% of the total social energy consumption. The energy and water consumption of each student are 4 times and 2 times that of the average Chinese resident, respectively, and show with a rigid growth trend. Based on the concept of “green performance” proposed by the “ Evaluation Standard for Green Buildings” (GB/T50378-2019), this study takes the most representative building types of libraries and dormitories as examples. The problems of these building types are systematically analyzed in terms of planning layout, lighting, ventilation, thermal comfort, system energy consumption and equipment energy consumption through on-site investigation, thermal environment testing, energy consumption data analysis, and environment, shape and structure design simulation. Finally, the energy efficiency design strategy model of university buildings based on green performance analysis is established, including planning and design strategy, form design strategy, construction design strategy, system design strategy, and equipment use strategy, especially the sub-items of form design and space division in the formal design strategy. This strategy is the best response to the need to advance the energy efficiency design of these buildings. From the beginning of the design, energy efficiency should be combined with architectural planning and layout, functional design, construction design, system design and other noumenon elements. On the one hand, the strategy considers the relationship between the sub items and energy efficiency such as shape design and spatial division related to the building function; on the other hand, it also considers the relationship between the system design and energy efficiency of large-scale buildings, to meet the requirements of 65% energy conservation in “The Design Standard for Energy Efficiency of Public Buildings” (GB 50189–2015).These considerations are all representative of a design strategy that incorporates green performance characteristics. The research results show that the existing buildings can be retrofitted to fully tap their energy efficiency potential, and new buildings should incorporate energy efficiency from the stage of architectural design, to allow technology to serve the design; achieve the efficiency, health and applicability goals of green buildings; and achieve the energy efficiency design goal based on green performance analysis.

Use of electroencephalogram and long short-term memory networks to recognize design preferences of users toward architectural design alternatives☆

Abstract In this study, we propose an electroencephalogram (EEG)-based long short-term memory networks model for recognizing user preferences toward architectural design images. An EEG is an approach that records the electrical activity in the brain, and EEG-based affection recognition is a technique used for quantitatively recognizing human emotion by analysing the recorded signals. Decision-makers’ subjective reactions toward architectural design alternatives may play a key role in the architectural planning and design stage. In this regard, the proposed model enables the quantitative recognition of their preferences and supports architects in the planning and design stages. The suggested model classifies the recorded data using a deep-learning technique. To build the model, an EEG recording experiment was conducted with 18 subjects, who were asked to select their most/least preferred images among eight images of small-housing design. Post recording, a positive and negative affect schedule questionnaire was distributed to the subjects to rate their affection. Google TensorFlow and Keras were used to structure the model. After training, precision, recall, and f1 score metrics were used to evaluate and validate the model. This model can help designers to evaluate design alternatives in terms of decision-making. Moreover, as this model uses biosignal data, which is universal to humans, architectural design processes for children, the elderly, etc., may be supported. Furthermore, a data-driven design database may be proposed in a future research for cross-validating with previous methods such as interviews and observations.

GEOMETRIC MODELING OF A PHYSICAL FIELD WITH A LINEAR ENERGY SOURCE

One of the important tasks of geometric modeling is the visibility and graphic representation of processes and phenomena, which include physical features. At the stage of architectural design of buildings and structures, as well as the territories surrounding them, such tasks related to energy conservation can be: modeling a physical field from various types of energy sources; determination of the energy potential at a specific given point of a physical field from given energy sources. Also of interest to practice is a number of inverse problems such as determining the parameters of energy sources (their position and capacities) from the given parameters of individual points of the physical field, etc.Energy sources that create a physical field can be either point or linear (extended) [1], and can also be represented in the form of planes (surfaces). This study examined the modeling of a physical field with a linear energy source, which is often assumed in practice, which is presented as a set of point sources.The potential between an arbitrary point in a physical field is affected by the distance between this point and energy sources. With an increase in the indicated distance, the energy potential at a point of the physical field decreases, and with a decrease in the distance, it increases [2]. This distance can be represented in the form of various functions that take into account various environmental parameters of the physical field.The plots of the dependence of the parameter taking into account the distance from the point of the physical field to the specified energy source, on the abscissa of the points of the linear energy source, where the uniform step along the axis Ox corresponds to the potential of one point of the source, are plotted. Then, in a discrete form, the field potential at an arbitrary point will be equal to the sum of the areas of the rectangles. In the continuous version, the potential at the field point will be equal to the area of the curved trapezoid.

RETRACTED: Cost estimation through Monte Carlo simulation in architectural early design stage

Architectural design can be considered an information-adding process, and within this process, each design decision provides information that uncovers some uncertainty regarding what is to be constructed. In early design stages, cost estimation is indispensable for subsequent decision making, but it cannot be accurate owing to the uncertainty associated with decisions that have not been made. This study proposes a Monte Carlo simulation–based method for designers to estimate potential trends in the construction cost of future design developments. The simulation reveals the probability distribution of construction cost via massive sampling over acceptable ranges of cost-affecting factors that have not yet been uncovered in the current design stage. The simulation result can serve as a part of a dashboard that provides guidance to designers for more optimally controlling construction cost.

PROFESSIONAL COMPETENCY AS A COMPONENT OF ARCHITECTURE-STUDENTS TRAINING

The article reveals the meaning of “competency”. The author proves that purpose of higher education is to acquire a high level of academic and creative artistic, professional and general competencies required for activities in a specific occupation or a field of knowledge. In Ukrainian education the term “competency” is used within the meaning suggested by European countries. DeSeCo programme (Definition and Selection of Competencies: Theoretical and Conceptual Foundations) launched in 1997 within the Federal Statistics Department (Switzerland) and the National Centre for Education Statistics (USA and Canada) defines “competency” as an ability to successfully meet one’s individual and social needs, to act and to perform tasks. Competency is based on knowledge and skills, but is not limited to those. It always includes one’s personal attitude to the above, and one’s experience enabling to “entwine” such knowledge with what the person already knows, and ability to guess a real-life situation, in which he/she will be able to apply such knowledge. In other words, each competency is built on a combination of cognitive attitudes and practical skills, knowledge and abilities, values, emotions, behavioural components, i.e. everything one can summon up for an active action. The author elucidates the essence and content of the competency-based approach to development of professional competencies in architecture students and analyzes professional competency as a component of training of architects-to-be. Acquisition of professional competencies by architecture students must rely on existing key competencies of school leavers. They must be fluent in the national language and have foreign language communication skills, must have information and communication competency and mathematical competency, teamwork skills, self-learning skills throughout their lives, etc. However, a student’s personal qualities also play a key role here, such as creative talent, developed spatial thinking, responsibility, organizational skills, teamwork skills, originality, ingenuity, creativity, realistic approach, sense of harmony, taste and style, observation skills, good memory, sociability and punctuality. Architectural training in Ukraine lasts for 6 years. One can divide training of architects-to-be into the following stages: I. Initial: introducing students to their future occupation. Realization of their potential in architecture will depend on their perceptions developed at this stage. This stage may help a person to understand his/her place in occupation or to become disillusioned with the chosen field. Time-wise this stage covers the first and second years of study. II. Evolvement: development of the feeling of professionalism. This is facilitated by studying occupation-oriented coursesand understanding the content of the future professional activity. Time-wise this stage covers the third and fourth years of study. III. Final: architecture students begin to realize specific features of their future occupation. They do not only have acertain scope of knowledge, but are able to acquire their own subjective experience in architectural activity. Time-wise this stage covers the fifth and sixth years of study and includes preparation of a graduation thesis. The article reveals that at all stages of training Architectural Design is a key major course, where students learn methods for comprehensive solution of an architectural problem in view of contemporary stylistic trends and design standards, study features of design of buildings with varying three-dimensional spatial structure, learn typological features of residential and public buildings. The article offers a partial analysis of international and domestic experience in architectural training using the process of architectural practical training as an example. When performing practice-oriented design projects, students develop skills for professional solution of architectural and artistic, functional planning, design and technology problems and gradually create their own creative methodof architectural design. During their initial years of study students hone skills in variable methods of sketching, techniques for three-dimensional, structural, image-bearing, colouristic modelling of architectural composition, which greatly enriches their creative experience in design. Organization of learning activity implies that students find their own ways to solve the problem based on familiarization with known methods of occupational activity. In senior years of study problematic nature of Architectural Design contributes to professional growth of students, creative design encourages use of parti diagrams, creative techniques and innovative methods of search for solutions. It stimulates creative activity of students and develops their self-reliance,which is greatly contributed by creation of learning situations close to real-life architectural activity. The article offers a partial analysis of international and domestic experience in architectural training using the process of architectural practical training as an example. The author gives examples of students’ architectural practical training in Ukraine, Germany, Poland, USA, Sweden and France.

Potentials for the Reduction of Construction Waste in the Architectural Design Stage

In this article, we propose the correspondence of Construction and Demolition Waste, CDW reduction and architectural design as a central concept to redefine the role of Architecture in the context of the Circular Economy, as applied to the construction process. To raise this question, 1) a State of the Art discussion was elaborated, a series of interviews was conducted with various relevant actors in the public and private spheres; 2) a Case Study of works carried out in relation to these principles was prepared; and 3) surveys were applied among professionals in the construction sector to assess the perception, experience and willingness to incorporate principles of waste reduction in professional practice. These activities made it possible to elucidate the potential of waste reduction strategies in the design stage, to identify the main barriers and opportunities, and to propose measures and instruments for a better implementation in practice.

BIM Impact Assessment of Landscape Architecture Design

In order to determine the influence degree of building information model (BIM) on the stage of landscape architecture design, firstly, this paper analyzes the influencing factors of the application of BIM in landscape architecture design based on the theory of balanced score card (BSC), and then establishes the hierarchical evaluation model of BIM influence degree by using analytic hierarchy process (AHP). Finally, realizes the quantitative evaluation of BIM influence degree. The research results show that based on the level evaluation model of BIM influence degree, the transformation from qualitative analysis to quantitative evaluation of BIM application in landscape architecture design stage is realized, which proves the feasibility and practicability of BIM application in landscape architecture design stage.

Uma ferramenta BIM para simulação de eficiência energética nas fases iniciais de projeto

O grau de eficiência energética das edificações depende de decisões tomadas nas fases iniciais do projeto arquitetônico. No entanto, os programas de avaliação do seu desempenho energético demandam informações que são normalmente definidas nas etapas finais do projeto. Caso o desempenho seja insatisfatório, todo um retrabalho precisa ser empreendido. O objetivo desse trabalho é desenvolver uma ferramenta de suporte ao projetista que seja capaz de informar o nível de eficiência energética de habitações unifamiliares nas fases iniciais de projeto considerando o Regulamento Técnico da Qualidade para o Nível de Eficiência Energética de Edificações Residenciais (RTQ-R), padrão de referência brasileira. Consequentemente a ferramenta IDEEA foi desenvolvida por meio da metodologia de Design Science, baseada na ferramenta de modelagem BIM Revit da Autodesk, com as linguagens de programação Dynamo e Python. Integrando a informação armazenada no modelo paramétrico com os processos de cálculo, scripts de cálculos de desempenho do modelo coletam as informações, processam os dados, executam equações, e apresentam os resultados da eficiência energética dos ambientes, da envoltória e da unidade habitacional (resfriamento, aquecimento e refrigeração), e a pontuação total. Estes desempenhos são apresentados em tabelas e elementos gráficos, de forma amigável para a leitura, análise e definições sobre o encaminhamento do projeto. A avaliação da ferramenta foi realizada na forma de um projeto para verificar a precisão dos resultados e aferida num workshop acadêmico para verificar usabilidade. Observou-se que a interface amigável possibilitou assimilação pelos voluntários participantes do workshop, sugerindo facilidade de incorporação no processo criativo de cada projetista. Possibilitando assim, a obtenção otimizada da Etiqueta Nacional de Conservação de Energia (ENCE), concedida no âmbito do Programa Brasileiro de Etiquetagem (PBE) do INMETRO.

New approximate method to identify soft story caused by infill walls

When the stiffness of a story is much less than the story above it, a significant portion of lateral displacement of the building is concentrated in this story and soft story is formed. One of the main reasons of soft story in buildings is eliminating or reducing the infill walls in lower stories. This reason is more important than the others because structural engineers usually neglect infill walls in modeling the structure, and on the other hand, architects do not consider the seismic behavior of infill walls during architectural design. In this research, based on the provision of soft story in seismic codes, 2277 macro models with different arrangements of infill walls in the adjacent floors were analyzed. By combining the three linear regression equations derived from the results of analyses, an approximate method was proposed for identifying the soft story. In this method, there is no need to the structural specifications and only by geometric specifications of architectural drawings, the arrangement of infill walls in adjacent stories can be checked. So, it can be used from the final stages of basic architectural design both by architects and structural engineers. The evaluation of this method on the analyzed models showed that 93% of models with soft story were identifiable by this method and in 97% of models, the results were reliable, which indicated high performance of this method.

Analysis of Natural Ventilation Performance Gap between Design Stage and Actual Operation of Office Buildings

Suitable natural ventilation in office buildings can not only reduce energy consumption of air conditioning, but also improve indoor air quality. In the architectural design stage, the effect of natural ventilation design is mainly simulated by CFD simulation software for indoor air speed, pressure, and age of air, etc.. However, during the actual building operation, the indoor natural ventilation effect will be affected by many factors, such as surrounding buildings, indoor layout, window position and open-close status, human behavior, etc., and the natural ventilation performance between design stage and actual operation is often different. In this paper, a typical office building was selected and FloVENT software was used to quantitatively analyse the influence of surrounding buildings, indoor layout, door/window opening conditions on indoor natural ventilation. Field measurement of indoor air flow rates in typical positions in office were carried out under different circumstances. In order to reduce the instantiate influence of outdoor wind speeds, a new index named Wind Speed Ratio(WSR) is put forward.Through comparative analysis of simulated data and measured data. the gap degree in natural ventilation performance between design stage and operation operation is discussed, and results show that the relative errors of the WSR, which could be considered to reflect the performance gap, are about 78.0%, 28.7% and 150% respectively, under corresponding condition settings of surrounding buildings, indoor layout, and door/window opening.