Stages Of Morphological Development Research Articles

Reciprocal utterances during interactions between deaf toddlers and their hearing mothers

Abstract This study compared reciprocal utterances of six hearing mother–hearing toddler dyads and six hearing mother–deaf toddler dyads. Child participants were matched by language stage based on Brown's stages of morphological development and were aged between 25 and 45 months. Child participants were observed interacting with their mothers during videotaped free play sessions.Language samples containing up to a maximum of 100 child utterances from each dyad were transcribed, coded and analysed. Reciprocal utterance units (RUUs) were compared between the hearing and deaf dyads. Results indicated that significant differences existed between dyads having hearing toddlers and dyads having deaf toddlers with regard to the type and frequency of reciprocal utterance units. Some variations to this general finding are discussed.

The bkdR gene of Streptomyces coelicolor is required for morphogenesis and antibiotic production and encodes a transcriptional regulator of a branched-chain amino acid dehydrogenase complex.

Products from the degradation of the branched-chain amino acids valine, leucine, and isoleucine contribute to the production of a number of important cellular metabolites, including branched-chain fatty acids, ATP and other energy production, cell-cell signaling for morphological development, and the synthesis of precursors for polyketide antibiotics. The first nonreversible reactions in the degradation of all three amino acids are catalyzed by the same branched-chain alpha-keto acid dehydrogenase (BCDH) complex. Actinomycetes are apparently unique among bacteria in that they contain two separate gene clusters, each of which encodes a BCDH enzyme complex. Here, we show that one of these clusters in Streptomyces coelicolor is regulated, at least in part, at the level of transcription by the product of the bkdR gene. The predicted product of this gene is a protein with similarity to a family of proteins that respond to leucine and serve to activate transcription of amino acid utilization operons. Unlike most other members of this class, however, the S. coelicolor bkdR gene product serves to repress transcription, suggesting that the branched-chain amino acids act as inducers rather than coactivators of transcription. BkdR likely responds to the presence of branched-chain amino acids. Its role in transcriptional regulation may be rationalized by the fact that transition from vegetative growth to aerial mycelium production, the first stage of morphological development in these complex bacteria, is coincident with extensive cellular lysis generating abundant amounts of protein that likely serve as the predominant source of carbon and nitrogen for metabolism. We suggest that bkdR plays a key role in the ability of Streptomyces species to sense nutrient availability and redirect metabolism for the utilization of branched-chain amino acids for energy, carbon, and perhaps even morphogen synthesis. A null mutant of bkdR is itself defective in morphogenesis and antibiotic production, suggesting that the role of the bkdR gene product may be more global than specific nutrient utilization.

Comparative Morphology of Caucasian Old World Bluestem and Native Grasses

Caucasian old world bluestem (OWB) [Bothrichloa bladhii (Retz) S.T. Blake] has been widely introduced in the southern and central Great Plains as a perennial warm‐season grass for forage and soil conservation. As a result of its widespread introduction, it has escaped into some native rangelands. Once established in native pastures, observations suggest that Caucasian OWB may mature earlier than native vegetation and may be avoided by grazing animals in mixed rangelands, thus altering grazing distribution and over utilizing native species. More advanced morphological development in grasses is also associated with lower forage quality and lower palatability. This study was conducted to examine if morphological development of Caucasian OWB and native perennial warm‐season grass species differs. Monoculture stands of Caucasian OWB, big bluestem (Angropogon gerardii Vitman), little bluestem [Schizachyrium scoparium (Michx.) Nash], and side‐oats grama [Bouteloua curtipendula (Michx.) Torr.] were established in the spring of 2000. After the initiation of first growth in 2002 and 2003, vegetation was hand clipped each week for 8 wk and quantified for morphological stage of development according to the Nebraska staging method. In 2002, a drought season, Caucasian OWB had a greater mean stage weight (MSW) than the native species during Weeks 3 through 7 (P < 0.001). In 2003, Caucasian OWB began the season at a similar morphological stage as the native species, but had a rate of development that was 5 to 11 times greater than the native species. The last 3 wk of the sampling period, MSW of Caucasian OWB was greater than all three native species (P < 0.001). With more advanced morphological development in Caucasian OWB than the native grasses, declining forage quality could affect grazing preference and distribution patterns in mixed swards of Caucasian OWB and native species. The introduction of Caucasian OWB into native rangelands may have impacts that have yet to be understood.

Economics of Alternative No-Till Spring Crop Rotations in Washington's Wheat–Fallow Region

Caucasian old world bluestem (OWB) [Bothrichloa bladhii (Retz) S.T. Blake] has been widely introduced in the southern and central Great Plains as a perennial warm-season grass for forage and soil conservation. As a result of its widespread introduction, it has escaped into some native rangelands. Once established in native pastures, observations suggest that Caucasian OWB may mature earlier than native vegetation and may be avoided by grazing animals in mixed rangelands, thus altering grazing distribution and over utilizing native species. More advanced morphological development in grasses is also associated with lower forage quality and lower palatability. This study was conducted to examine if morphological development of Caucasian OWB and native perennial warm-season grass species differs. Monoculture stands of Caucasian OWB, big bluestem (Angropogon gerardii Vitman), little bluestem [Schizachyrium scoparium (Michx.) Nash], and side-oats grama [Bouteloua curtipendula (Michx.) Torr.] were established in the spring of 2000. After the initiation of first growth in 2002 and 2003, vegetation was hand clipped each week for 8 wk and quantified for morphological stage of development according to the Nebraska staging method. In 2002, a drought season, Caucasian OWB had a greater mean stage weight (MSW) than the native species during Weeks 3 through 7 (P < 0.001). In 2003, Caucasian OWB began the season at a similar morphological stage as the native species, but had a rate of development that was 5 to 11 times greater than the native species. The last 3 wk of the sampling period, MSW of Caucasian OWB was greater than all three native species (P < 0.001). With more advanced morphological development in Caucasian OWB than the native grasses, declining forage quality could affect grazing preference and distribution patterns in mixed swards of Caucasian OWB and native species. The introduction of Caucasian OWB into native rangelands may have impacts that have yet to be understood.

Pausing during interactions between deaf toddlers and their hearing mothers

Abstract This study investigated the prosodic feature of ‘pausing’ during interactions between profoundly deaf toddlers and their hearing mothers. The participants in the study were 12 mother–toddler dyads comprising six normally hearing toddlers and their hearing mothers and six profoundly deaf toddlers and their hearing mothers. Child participants were matched by language stage based on Brown's stages of morphological development and were aged between 25 and 45 months. Child participants were observed interacting with their mothers during videotaped free play sessions. Language samples containing up to a maximum of 100 child utterances from each dyad were transcribed, coded and analysed. The association between the prosodic feature of pausing (using measured time intervals) and the hearing status of the dyads was investigated. Results indicated that significant differences existed between dyads having hearing toddlers and dyads having deaf toddlers with regard to the length of pause between reciprocal u...

Pausing during interactions between deaf toddlers and their hearing mothers

This study investigated the prosodic feature of ‘pausing’ during interactions between profoundly deaf toddlers and their hearing mothers. The participants in the study were 12 mother–toddler dyads comprising six normally hearing toddlers and their hearing mothers and six profoundly deaf toddlers and their hearing mothers. Child participants were matched by language stage based on Brown's stages of morphological development and were aged between 25 and 45 months. Child participants were observed interacting with their mothers during videotaped free play sessions. Language samples containing up to a maximum of 100 child utterances from each dyad were transcribed, coded and analysed. The association between the prosodic feature of pausing (using measured time intervals) and the hearing status of the dyads was investigated. Results indicated that significant differences existed between dyads having hearing toddlers and dyads having deaf toddlers with regard to the length of pause between reciprocal utterances. The findings also suggested that there was a significant relationship between the language stage of the toddler and the dyad's use of pause length. Some variations in this general finding were noted. The implications of this study in terms of educational strategies for parents, teachers and speech pathologists are discussed.

Morphological development and allometric growth patterns in hatchery‐reared California halibut larvae

Morphological development, allometric growth and behaviour of hatchery‐reared California halibut Paralichthys californicus were studied from hatching to metamorphosis (42 days post hatch, dph) at 187° C. Mean standard length (LS) of larvae and juveniles increased from 2.1 mm at hatching to 10.5 mm at metamorphosis with the increase in length being approximately linear. Stages of morphological development were described using the alphabetic staging (A–I) used for other flatfish species. Organogenesis and differentiation were more rapid and complex in yolk‐sac (hatching, stage A–3 dph, stage B), preflexion (3–19 dph, stages B–C), and flexion larvae (from 20 to 23 dph, stages D–E), as larvae developed most of their sensory, feeding, respiratory and swimming systems. After notochord flexion at 24–25 dph (stage F), most morphological changes were related to the progressive transformation from a bilateral symmetrical larva to an asymmetrical benthic juvenile (42 dph, stages G–I).

Morphological development and allometric growth patterns in hatchery-reared California halibut larvae

Morphological development, allometric growth and behaviour of hatchery-reared California halibut Paralichthys californicus were studied from hatching to metamorphosis (42 days post hatch, dph) at 187° C. Mean standard length (LS) of larvae and juveniles increased from 2.1 mm at hatching to 10.5 mm at metamorphosis with the increase in length being approximately linear. Stages of morphological development were described using the alphabetic staging (A–I) used for other flatfish species. Organogenesis and differentiation were more rapid and complex in yolk-sac (hatching, stage A–3 dph, stage B), preflexion (3–19 dph, stages B–C), and flexion larvae (from 20 to 23 dph, stages D–E), as larvae developed most of their sensory, feeding, respiratory and swimming systems. After notochord flexion at 24–25 dph (stage F), most morphological changes were related to the progressive transformation from a bilateral symmetrical larva to an asymmetrical benthic juvenile (42 dph, stages G–I).

Reproductive strategies and developmental aspects in mormyrid and gymnotiform fishes

Comparative data on the reproduction in captivity and ontogenetic development of six of mormyrid species and seven gymnotiform species are reported. Mormyrid fishes: egg diameter ranged from 1.8 ( Petroephalus soudanensis) to 3.0 mm ( Hippopotamyrus pictus, Campylomormyrus phantasticus); fecundity (egg number per spawning) from 28 to 215 ( Pollimyrus isidori) and 121 to 1662 ( Campylomormyrus cassaicus); spawning intervals from 5 to 20 days ( Pollimyrus isidori) and 15 to 80 days ( Campylomormyrus cassaicus). Pollimyrus isidori is the only species exhibiting parental care (in the male sex). Gymnotiform species: egg diameter ranged from 1.7 ( Brachyhypopomus pinnicaudatus) to 3.0 mm ( Sternopygus macrurus, Rhamphichthys sp., Gymnotus carapo); fecundity (egg number per spawning) from 1 to 105 ( Apteronotus leptorhynchus) and from ∼500 to ∼1000 ( Rhamphichthys sp.); spawning intervals from 2 to 5 days ( Eigenmannia lineata) and from 20 to 41 days ( Rhamphichthys sp.). Sternopygus macrurus exhibited parental care (in the male sex) by guarding the eggs, whereas Gymnotus carapo revealed to be a mouthbreeder (guarding free embryos) in the male sex. Gonad maturation could be provoked by increase of conductivity alone in all mormyrid species tested and in several gymnotiform species. Four different stages of morphological development (hatchlings, larvae at beginning of exogenous feeding, juveniles, adults) are described in both taxa. The reproductive strategies of the gymnotiforms are considered more diverse than those of the mormyrids.

Expression of cytoskeletal proteins in developing human minor salivary glands.

The presence of an epithelium at different stages of proliferation and differentiation raises interesting questions concerning the histogenesis, cell turnover and differentiation of normal salivary glands. In order to expand knowledge of these aspects, we investigated the expression of cytokeratins (CKs) 7,8,10,13,14,16,18 and 19, vimentin (VIM), and smooth muscle actin (SMA) in developing human minor salivary glands using monoclonal antibodies. Labial, buccal, palatine, and lingual salivary glands and those from the floor of the mouth were obtained from human fetuses (forensic postmortem) ranging in age from gestational weeks 10 to 29. Serial sections, 3 microm thick, were immunostained using a strepto-avidin-biotin technique. Reactivity for all antibodies was negative in the salivary gland epithelium during the developmental stages of bud formation, cord growth, and branching of cord. During canalization and cytodifferentiation, the glandular epithelial cells showed a positive reaction to some CKs and SMA. Cytokeratins 7, 8, 18, and 19 showed strong labeling in luminal duct cells that exhibited some degree of morphological differentiation. Myoepithelial cellc were recognized by antibodies to SMA. Cytoskeletal protein expression changes according to the cell type, degree of differentiation, and stage of morphological development of the glandular structure. These changes occur independently of the localization of the gland.

Factors associated with early embryonic mortality

This paper describes the patterns of embryonic mortality in poultry species and summarises the various causes of mortality. Descriptions of the morphological stages of development at each of these time periods are given. Data are presented describing factors affecting development at oviposition, egg storage and incubation.

Global analysis of growth phase responsive gene expression and regulation of antibiotic biosynthetic pathways inStreptomyces coelicolorusing DNA microarrays

The eubacterial species Streptomyces coelicolor proceeds through a complex growth cycle in which morphological differentiation/development is associated with a transition from primary to secondary metabolism and the production of antibiotics. We used DNA microarrays and mutational analysis to investigate the expression of individual genes and multigene antibiotic biosynthetic pathways during these events. We identified expression patterns in biosynthetic, regulatory, and ribosomal protein genes that were associated highly specifically with particular stages of development. A knowledge-based algorithm that correlates temporal changes in expression with chromosomal position identified groups of contiguous genes expressed at discrete stages of morphological development, inferred the boundaries of known antibiotic synthesis gene loci, and revealed novel physical clusters of coordinately regulated genes. Microarray analysis of RNA from cells mutated in genes regulating synthesis of the antibiotics actinorhodin (Act) and undecylprodigiosin (Red) identified proximate and distant sites that contain putative ABC transporter and two-component system genes expressed coordinately with genes of specific biosynthetic pathways and indicated the existence of two functionally and physically discrete regulons in the Red pathway.

Costs of extended brood protection in the Antarctic sea star, Neosmilaster georgianus (Echinodermata: Asteroidea)

Changes in size, morphology, and biochemical composition in adults and embryos of a brooding sea star, Neosmilaster georgianus (Sladen), were studied in a population adjacent to Anvers Island, Antarctic Peninsula (64°46′S; 64°04′W) during the austral spring, 1991. Five morphological stages of development were designated in 24 broods, and for each the weight and biochemical composition of the brooding adults and their embryos were determined. Between Stage 1 and 2, the dry weight (dw) and organic weight (ow) of the embryo did not change. From Stage 2 to 3, the dw and ow increased significantly by 10%. Stage 2 and 3 embryos were in clusters of a few (2 to 10) to as many as 40 individuals. In the smaller clusters, individual embryos were attached by tissue cords to another, sometimes atrophied, brood member. In the larger clusters, they were attached to a central mass of tissue containing remnants of embryos. We interpret these interactions as a form of cannibalism which may account for the weight gains between Stage 2 and 3. During Stages 4 and 5, as juvenile form was approached, the dw and ash weight of the young increased significantly and the ow decreased significantly. The calculated energy content for the juvenile (Stage 5) was not significantly different from the energy content of the earliest undifferentiated stage (Stage 1), an indication that most of the organic matter in the egg is the primary contribution to the large juvenile. In brooding females, pyloric caeca indices declined by 52% from Stage 1 to Stage 5 and pyloric energy stores declined by 63% due to proportionately equivalent declines in protein and lipid. The ovary index was low and increased only slightly during brood protection, while the size of the largest oocytes remained approximately 23% that of ova. Energy stores in the pyloric caeca of brooding N. georgianus thus become depleted over a long period of incubation during which the adults apparently starve. This may delay oocyte development and ultimately limit the frequency of individual reproduction.

Fiber Digestion Dynamics of Sward Components within Switchgrass Populations

Forage quality as it relates to plant maturity is well established; however, strategies for improving fiber digestion in switchgrass populations have not been determined. The objectives of this study were to determine fiber digestion of sward components within switchgrass (Panicum virgatum L.) populations and which aspects of fiber digestion dynamics caused in vitro dry matter disappearance (IVDMD) differences of six switchgrass populations. This study was conducted in 1993 near Ames, IA, and Mead, NE. The experimental design was a randomized complete block design with a split-plot arrangement of treatments with four replicates at each location. Whole plots were populations and subplots were sward maturity. Trailblazer', 'Pathfinder', 'Cave-in-Rock', and three experimental switchgrass populations were used in this study. Populations were harvested on 9 June, 19 July, and 27 August at Ames and on 10 June, 27 July, and 26 August at Mead. Fiber composition and digestibility were determined on leaf blade, leaf sheath, and stem fractions of the primary growth stages. Significant differences for theoretical true digestibility (TD) and neutral detergent fiber (NDF) existed for morphological components at each sward maturity. However, digestion characteristics of the sward components were not stable across primary growth stages. Rate of fiber digestion was faster for most sward components at Ames than Mead, although stems of elongating tillers from elongating swards digested faster on plants grown at Mead than Ames. Rate of fiber digestion of stems was typically slower than either leaf blades or sheaths, but in several instances they were similar or stems had faster rates of fiber digestion. Although phenotypic selection can increase fiber digestibility, plant maturity remains an important factor, and selections may require evaluation at different stages of morphological development. Thus, improvements in forage digestion, at least in switchgrass, may only be manifested for the growth stage at which it was selected.

Erosion and sedimentation problems in Nepal from the viewpoint of morphological development

Three cases of disasters such as landslides, debris flows and unstable river courses are presented from the viewpoint of morphological development in Nepal. In the Tukuche village in the Higher Himalaya, shallow landslides occur in moraine deposits covered with recent fluvial deposits promoting bank erosion of the Kali Gandaki River. The slope towards the river bank composed of Quaternary glacial deposits should be noticed as landslide-prone areas in this region.&#x0D; Alluvial fans are less developed and widths of river courses are larger on the rivers originating from the Upper Siwaliks than those from the Middle/Lower Siwaliks in the eastern Churia hills. Because material size produced from hill slopes is smaller in the former case than the latter case, less tractive force by river stream can transport river bed materials and erode river banks. Consequently, the river topography is altered dramatically. River course control works are very important for the former case.&#x0D; Countermeasures for the torrents affected by debris flows in 1981 are also discussed in this paper. Distribution and volume of unstable deposits depend on the stage of morphological development of a torrent watershed. Analysis of morphological development was carried out on the basis of mapping and volume estimation of unstable deposits on the slopes and valley floors in two torrent watersheds of the Nallu Khola in the Mahabarat Range.

Simulation of allocation of accumulated biomass to leaf and stem in a grass growth model

AbstractTo model variations in leaf/stem ratio in connection with studies of field‐drying of grass, account was taken of the effects that the stage of morphological development of grass has on the allocation of biomass to plant components, as well as on duration of growth and peak yield. A comparison of experimental data and corresponding daily weather data suggested that it is more satisfactory to express the stages of grass development in terms of degree‐days than time alone. On the basis of one set of weekly measured data, the ratio of green leaf weight to aboveground biomass was found to be a close fit to a positive linear relationship early in the growth period (durïng expansion of the first leaf on each tiller), followed by negative exponential relationship (during expansion of subsequent leaves), in relation to relative development expressed as growing degree‐days. Similar trends, but with some quite large variations in absolute values because of unknown factors, were found in two other datasets consisting of a few measurements only.

Nucleic acids in ichthyoplankton ecology: a review, with emphasis on recent advances for new perspectives

Nucleic acid assessments and especially the RNA/DNA ratio are used widely as indices of growth rate or nutritional condition of larval fish. Methodological aspects are considered with the aim of defining a most reliable analytical procedure. Laboratory calibrations can give conflicting results, but general and common features may be drawn from a global examination. A high variability of RNA content, and thus RNA/DNA ratio, was revealed by estimates at the individual level and seems to be more related to feeding condition in late larval or juvenile stages than in yolk‐sac and first‐feeding larvae. An alternative is suggested, based on the relative DNA content which appears more stable and sensitive to starvation during these early stages. The consistency of such a pattern is strongly supported by findings about regulation of ribosomal RNA content of tissues, and especially white muscle, by nutrition. Determination of a threshold founded on a simple observation of morphological development stages is proposed as a base to define the best way to assess the larval nutritional condition. Some field applications are reviewed briefly. Finally an appraisal of the advantages and drawbacks of the different nucleic acid‐based indices is attempted, which permits delineation of some prospects for future research.

Granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor promotes development of in vitro produced bovine embryos.

The objective was to determine whether granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor (GM-CSF) stimulates development of bovine embryos. In each experiment, oocytes were fertilized in vitro, GM-CSF was added to embryo culture medium at 8-10 h or 5 days after insemination, and development was monitored as the proportion of oocytes that formed blastocysts. Addition of recombinant bovine GM-CSF to serum-free medium at 8-10 h after insemination increased the percentage of oocytes that formed blastocysts (7.2% and 15.2% for control and GM-CSF, respectively). GM-CSF did not affect cleavage rate. Rather, the effect of GM-CSF seems to be exerted after Day 5 after insemination, as indicated by the following findings: 1) GM-CSF did not alter embryo cell number at Day 5 after insemination; 2) administration of GM-CSF at Day 5 increased the proportion of oocytes that developed to the blastocyst stage (6.7%, 13.0%, and 22.4% for control and 1 and 10 ng/ml GM-CSF, respectively); and 3) addition of serum at Day 5 increased development but prevented a further increase due to addition of GM-CSF at 10 h after insemination. Blastocysts from GM-CSF-treated cultures tended to be at earlier stages of morphological development (i.e., fewer blastocysts expanded at Day 7 and fewer were hatching or hatched at Day 9 after insemination). GM-CSF may play a role in the early development of bovine embryos and might be a useful molecule for increasing blastocyst production rates in serum-free culture systems.

Isoflavone Content of Breast Milk and Soy Formulas: Benefits and Risks

A recent editorial (1) properly credited Franke and Custer (2) for an important study of urinary and breast milk concentrations of isoflavones in women consuming soybeans. This editorial cited literature concerning potential health benefits of phytoestrogens and, to a much lesser extent, potential toxicity. In the accompanying letter below, Franke points out that infants consuming soy-based formula are exposed to high concentrations of phytoestrogens. Estrogens are two-edged swords in humans; both risks and benefits can be demonstrated in the same person. Two examples are oral contraceptives (benefit: fertility control; risk: increased incidence of breast cancer (3)) and unopposed estrogen replacement therapy (benefit: reduction in mortality due to heart disease and osteoporosis and relief of menopause symptoms; risk: increased incidence of endometrial cancer (4)). Given this characteristic of estrogens generally, what do we know of risks from phytoestrogens? Adverse effects of phytoestrogens on reproduction and development in wildlife (5), livestock (6), and experimental animals (7) have been documented. Developmental exposure to phytoestrogens results in toxicities similar or identical to those of other estrogens. Neonatal rodents have long been used as a model of human prenatal diethylstilbestrol (DES) exposure on the basis of developmental staging and similar outcomes from exposure (8). However, the neonatal rodent and postnatal human are not at equivalent morphological stages of development (9) and the neonatal rodent does not model the infant human. In addition to lacking a rodent estrogen model of the human infant, we also have little clinical experience with human infant exposure to estrogens generally. Although the data are limited for developmental effects of phytoestrogens, the similarity of DES and phytoestrogen effects in newborn rodents should be considered a cautionary note for the developmentally later exposure that occurs with soy infant formula. As the editorial points out, the beneficial effects of soy-based formulas or of …

Development of Media and Automated Liquid Fermentation Methods to Produce Desiccation-Tolerant Propagules ofTrichoderma harzianum

Abstract A suitable medium was developed from modified Richard's medium plus V8 juice (RM8) to produce high levels of desiccation-tolerant conidia of Trichoderma harzianum strain 1295-22. The addition of 9% (v/v) glycerol to RM8 improved both biomass production and desiccation tolerance of the conidia of T. harzianum. This medium was then used in a laboratory scale fermenter (1.5 liter) to determine optimal operating conditions. The optimal temperature for conidial production and desiccation tolerance improvement in the fermenter was 32°C when dissolved oxygen was maintained at 50% saturation of air, and the stirring rate was 1000 revolutions per minute. The initial water potential of the medium (with 9% glycerol) was −3.7 MPa, the pH was 6, and neither was controlled during fermentation. Changes in medium pH and dissolved oxygen were associated with the stages of morphological development and conidiation. The pH of the medium decreased concurrently with germ-tube elongation and mycelium development and then increased to 6.0–6.2 at phialide formation. Intensive conidiation occurred at pH 6.3–6.5 and reached its maximal level at 6.9–7.1. Changes in pH values could be used as indicators to monitor the morphological development and conidiation of T. harzianum during fermentation. The use of a 48-h-old culture inoculum, rather than conidial inoculum, to start fermentation reduced the time required to complete the shift from vegetative growth to phialide formation. Intensive conidiation occurred immediately after the addition of culture inoculum and reached maximum levels within 68 h of fermentation. Dry weight of biomass increased with the duration of fermentation and was greatest at 96 h. However, no improvements in conidia/gram and CFU/gram were achieved after 72 h of fermentation. The desiccation tolerance of conidia harvested at 72 or 96 h was significantly ( P = 0.05) greater than that of conidia harvested at 48 h of fermentation. Results obtained from this study could be used for further scale-up of the fermentation process.