Stable Isotope Ratio Mass Spectrometry Research Articles

Profiling of seized methamphetamine putatively synthesized by reductive amination of 1-phenyl-2-propanone

We report a case of seized methamphetamine (MA) samples showing unique drug profiles. Conventional drug profiling such as impurity profiling and chiral analysis as well as stable isotope ratio mass spectrometry (IRMS) was performed on seven MA–HCl samples. The results of impurity profiling suggested that the samples were synthesized by reductive amination. The high enantiomeric purities of the samples suggested that the samples were optically resolved. The δ13C and δ15N values gave different grouping patterns from conventional drug profiling. This is the first case report of the use of IRMS with seized MA samples presumptively synthesized by reductive amination.

Methylamphetamine synthesis: Does an alteration in synthesis conditions affect the δ13C, δ15N and δ2H stable isotope ratio values of the product?

Conventional chemical profiling of methylamphetamine has long been employed by national forensic laboratories to determine the synthetic route and where possible the precursor chemicals used in its manufacture. This laboratory has been studying the use of stable isotope ratio mass spectrometry (IRMS) analysis as a complementary technique to conventional chemical profiling of fully synthetic illicit drugs such as methylamphetamine. As part of these investigations the stable carbon (δ(13) C), nitrogen (δ(15) N), and hydrogen (δ(2) H) isotope values in the precursor chemicals of ephedrine and pseudoephedrine and the resulting methylamphetamine end-products have been measured to determine the synthetic origins of methylamphetamine. In this study, results are presented for δ(13) C, δ(15) N, and δ(2) H values in methylamphetamine synthesized from ephedrine and pseudoephedrine by two synthetic routes with varying experimental parameters. It was demonstrated that varying parameters, such as stoichiometry, reaction temperature, reaction time, and reaction pressure, had no effect on the δ(13) C, δ(15) N, and δ(2) H isotope values of the final methylamphetamine product, within measurement uncertainty. Therefore the value of the IRMS technique in identifying the synthetic origin of precursors, such as ephedrine and pseudoephedrine, is not compromised by the potential variation in synthetic method that is expected from one batch to the next, especially in clandestine laboratories where manufacture can occur without stringent quality control of reactions.

Organic impurities, stable isotopes, or both: A comparison of instrumental and pattern recognition techniques for the profiling of 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine

In this study, we precisely synthesised 61 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine hydrochloride (MDMA.HCl) samples. The synthetic route, reaction conditions, and batch of starting material used were carefully controlled in order to facilitate the assessment of the sample linkage abilities of: (1) GCMS organic impurity profiling using different sets of target impurities recommended from the published literature, and (2) stable isotope ratio mass spectrometry (IRMS) for δ13C, δ15N, δ2H, and δ18O-values. For GCMS analysis, we utilised the extraction parameters, instrumental conditions, and data analysis techniques recently published. In addition to this, we analysed all MDMA.HCl samples by IRMS for their 13C, 15N, 2H, and 18O isotopic composition. The resulting data sets were subjected to hierarchical cluster analysis, principal component analysis, and discriminant analysis to identify which type of measurement (i.e.GCMS, IRMS, or both), which set of target impurities for GCMS, and which data pre-treatment method offers meaningful discrimination of the samples according to batch of starting material used, synthetic route used, or both. For our data set, discriminant analysis using a combination of the IRMS data and GCMS data (‘Van Deursen’ impurities pre-treated with the fourth root method) provided the most accurate discrimination of the MDMA.HCl samples. Principal component analysis had the second highest success rate, and hierarchical cluster analysis had only limited success at producing meaningful discrimination of the samples into their known groupings.

Variable responses of the soil microbial biomass to trace concentrations of 13C‐labelled glucose, using 13C‐PLFA analysis

13C‐labelled glucose was applied to arable (Broadbalk NPK) and permanent grassland (Woburn Grassland) soils to investigate the response of the soil microbial biomass (SMB) to carbon (C) applied at trace concentrations. Phospholipid fatty acids (PLFA) were used as biomarkers for G+ve (odd‐chained and iso/anteiso FA) and G−ve bacteria (mono‐unsaturated and cyclic FA), actinobacteria (10‐methyl‐branched FA), fungi (octadecadienoic acid) and general membrane lipids [16:0,18:0]. Gas chromatography–combustion–stable isotope ratio mass spectrometry (GC‐C‐IRMS) was used to determine the incorporation of 13C into individual PLFA in two experiments: first, after application of a single concentration (15 µg C g−1) of 13C‐glucose over a time sequence (0, 8, 24, 48, 120 and 240 hours), and second after application at three concentrations (25, 83, 416 µg C g−1 soil after 120 hours). 13C incorporation into PLFA over time was similar in both soils. However, in the permanent grassland soil, 13C incorporation was increased in actinobacteria PLFA at 120 hours when [16:0,18:0] was reduced. At 240 hours, 13C incorporation increased in [16:0,18:0] concurrently with a reduction in G+ve bacteria PLFA. Increasing glucose concentration caused different responses in the SMB of both soils. In the arable soil, all biomarker PLFA concentrations increased at all rates of application. In contrast, in the permanent grassland soil PLFA concentrations were similar to the control in all SMB groups, except G+ve bacteria after the greatest rate of application. However, the δ13C values of the same PLFA indicated that uptake of applied 13C‐glucose was proportional to the applied concentration in all groups of soil bacteria in both soils.

Distinguishing Wild from Hatchery‐Produced Juvenile Red Snapper with Otolith Chemical Signatures

AbstractOtolith chemical signatures were evaluated as natural tags to distinguish wild from hatchery‐produced juvenile red snapper Lutjanus campechanus. Otoliths were sampled from 59 hatchery‐reared fish and 146 wild fish collected over the continental shelf from northwest Florida to Texas. One sagitta from each fish was cleaned, dissolved in ultrapure nitric acid, and analyzed with sector field inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry to test for differences in otolith element:Ca ratios (Ba:Ca, Li:Ca, Mg:Ca, Mn:Ca, and Sr:Ca) between wild and hatchery fish. The second sagitta was cleaned, ground to a fine powder, and analyzed with stable isotope ratio mass spectrometry to test for differences in delta (δ) values of the stable isotopes 13C and 18O. Significant differences existed in otolith chemical signatures between hatchery and wild juveniles (multivariate analysis of variance, Pillai's trace: P < 0.001). Jackknifed classification accuracies from linear discriminant function analysis indicated that hatchery fish could be distinguished from wild fish with 100% accuracy based on otolith chemical signatures. The most important otolith chemistry feature in distinguishing hatchery from wild fish was δ13C, with the mean difference in δ13C between hatchery and wild fish (−2.6‰) being similar to the mean difference in δ13C between hatchery feeds and the predominant food of wild juveniles (−2.8‰). Overall, results suggest that otolith chemical signatures may be employed as effective natural tags for mass marking of future stockings of red snapper or other marine fishes to estimate the hatchery contribution to wild populations.

Method based on isotope ratio mass spectrometry for evaluation of carbon activation in the reactor graphite

The general idea of this work is to introduce an evaluation method to restore the irradiation parameters of graphite or other carbonaceous materials using experimental and modelling results of 13C generation in the irradiated material. The method is based on coupling of stable isotope ratio mass spectrometry and computer modelling of the reactor core to evaluate the realistic characteristics of the reactor core such as the neutron fluence in any position of the reactor graphite stack or other graphite constructions. The generation of carbon isotopes 13C and 14C in the irradiated graphite of the RBMK-1500 reactor has been estimated by modelling of the reactor core with computer codes MCNPX and CINDER90. Good agreement of simulated and measured Δ 13C/ 12C values in graphite of the central part of the reactor core indicates that the neutron flux (1.40 × 10 14 n/cm 2 s) is modelled accurately in the graphite sleeve of the fuel channel. The simulated activity of 14C is compared with the one measured by the β spectrometry technique. Results indicate that production of 14C from 14N in the RBMK-1500 reactor is considerable and has to be taken into account in order to make proper evaluation of 14C activity. Measured 14C specific activity values correspond to 15 ± 4 ppm impurity of 14N in graphite samples from the RBMK-1500 reactor core.

Seized methamphetamine samples with unique profiles of stable nitrogen isotopic composition documented by stable isotope ratio mass spectrometry

We report a case of seized methamphetamine (MA) samples showing unique profiles of stable isotopic compositions. Three packages of MA-HCl samples seized simultaneously from one suspect were subjected to gas chromatographic impurity profiling and stable isotope ratio mass spectrometry (IRMS). The samples showed similar impurity profiles by gas chromatography, but their stable isotopic compositions were complicated. The δ15N values of the samples from each package varied widely when the crystals were analyzed separately; we could differentiate two major groups labeled I and II, and also their subgroups. Each of the three packages contained MA-HCl crystals belonging to multiple groups and subgroups. It was considered that several batches of MA-HCl with starting materials from different sources were mixed together after a similar or the same synthesis procedure and then divided into the packages. This is the first report to show that stable IRMS is useful for differentiating seized MA using small crystals from different sources.

Comparative analysis of ephedrine and pseudoephedrine by using stable isotope ratio mass spectrometry (IRMS)

Comparative analysis of ephedrine and pseudoephedrine by using stable isotope ratio mass spectrometry (IRMS)

Applications of stable isotope ratio mass spectrometry in cattle dung carbon cycling studies

Understanding the fate of dung carbon (C) in soils is challenging due to the ubiquitous presence of the plant-derived organic matter (OM), the source material from which both dung-derived OM and soil organic matter (SOM) predominantly originate. A better understanding of the fate of specific components of this substantial source of OM, and thereby its contribution to C cycling in terrestrial ecosystems, can only be achieved through the use of labelled dung treatments. In this short review, we consider analytical approaches using bulk and compound-specific stable carbon isotope analysis that have been utilised to explore the fate of dung-derived C in soils. Bulk stable carbon isotope analyses are now used routinely to explore OM matter cycling in soils, and have shown that up to 20% of applied dung C may be incorporated into the surface soil horizons several weeks after application, with up to 8% remaining in the soil profile after one year. However, whole soil delta(13)C values represent the average of a wide range of organic components with varying delta(13)C values and mean residence times in soils. Several stable (13)C isotope ratio mass spectrometric methods have been developed to qualify and quantify different fractions of OM in soils and other complex matrices. In particular, thermogravimetry-differential scanning calorimetry-isotope ratio mass spectrometry (TG-DSC-IRMS) and gas chromatography-combustion-IRMS (GC-C-IRMS) analyses have been applied to determine the incorporation and turnover of polymeric plant cell wall materials from C(4) dung into C(3) grassland soils using natural abundance (13)C isotope labelling. Both approaches showed that fluxes of C derived from polysaccharides, i.e. as cellulose or monosaccharide components, were more similar to the behaviour of bulk dung C in soil than lignin. However, lignin and its 4-hydroxypropanoid monomers were unexpectedly dynamic in soil. These findings provide further evidence for emerging themes in biogeochemical investigations of soil OM dynamics that challenge perceived concepts of recalcitrance of C pools in soils, which may have profound implications for the assessment of the potential of agricultural soils to influence terrestrial C sinks.

Identification of Sediment Sources in Forested Watersheds With Surface Coal Mining Disturbance Using Carbon and Nitrogen Isotopes1

Abstract: Sediments and soils were analyzed using stable carbon and nitrogen isotope ratio mass spectrometry and carbon and nitrogen elemental analyses to evaluate the their ability to indicate land‐use and land management disturbance and pinpoint loading from sediment transport sources in forested watersheds disturbed by surface coal mining. Samples of transported sediment particulate organic matter were collected from four watersheds in the Southern Appalachian forest region of southeastern Kentucky. The four watersheds had different surface coal mining history that were classified as undisturbed, active mining, and reclaimed conditions. Soil samples were analyzed including reclaimed grassland soils, undisturbed forest soils, geogenic organic matter associated with coal fragments in mining spoil, and soil organic matter from un‐mined grassland soils. Statistically significant differences were found for all biogeochemical signatures when comparing transported sediments from undisturbed watersheds and surface coal mining disturbed watersheds, and the results were attributed to differences in erosion sources and the presence of geogenic organic matter. Sediment transport sources in the surface coal mining watersheds were analyzed using Monte Carlo mass balance un‐mixing and it was found that: δ15N showed the ability to differentiate streambank erosion and surface soil erosion; and δ13C showed the ability to differentiate soil organic matter and geogenic organic matter. Results from the analyses suggest that streambank erosion downstream of surface coal mining sites is an especially significant source of sediment in coal mining disturbed watersheds. Further, the results suggest that the sediment transport processes governing streambank erosion loads are taking longer to reach geomorphologic equilibrium in the watershed as compared with the surface erosion processes. The dual‐isotope technique provides a useful method for further investigation of the impact of surface coal mining in the uplands of the watershed upon the geomorphologic state of the channel and the source of organic matter in aquatic systems impacted by surface coal mining.

Bad Science: The instrumental data in the Floyd Landis case

Background In 2006 Floyd Landis won the world's most prestigious bicycle race, the Tour de France. However, not many days after the race's conclusion it was released to the press that the Laboratoire National de Dépistage du Dopage (LNDD) had found Landis' urine after stage 17 positive for synthetic testosterone. Methods This review examines the instrumental data and methodology used by LNDD in the Landis case. The conclusions reached by LNDD were based on results of 2 separate instrumental methods. Subsequent to urine extraction and possibly derivatization, samples were initially screened via gas chromatography/mass spectrometry (GC/MS) using selected ion monitoring (SIM) to measure the ratio of testosterone to epitestosterone (T/E). Final confirmation of exogenous testosterone was determined by measuring the 13C/ 12C stable isotope ratios in 4 metabolites of testosterone via gas chromatography combustion stable isotope ratio mass spectrometry (GC-C-IRMS). Conclusion T/E ratios determined by LNDD in Landis' stage 17 urine were unreliable due to the combined factors of an unsatisfactory extraction, high GC background, failure to obtain baseline peak separation for epitestosterone, unreliable quantization of the epitestosterone peak due to both peak overlap and because it was barely above background noise, and because only a single ion mass (432) rather than a minimum of 3 was used for SIM (in violation of both LNDD's SOP and WADA procedures). GC-C-IRMS methodology is less well known to the analytical chemistry community, but here too the results obtained by LNDD were unreliable. GC-C-IRMS errors can be briefly summarized as uncertain peak identification, unsuitable standards, and unreliable (and possibly biased) calculation of 13C/ 12C ratios due to peak overlap as well as LNDD's usage of manual peak integration rather than use of the instrument system software.

Forensic analysis of explosives using isotope ratio mass spectrometry (IRMS) — Preliminary study on TATP and PETN

The application of isotopic techniques to investigations requiring the provision of evidence to a Court is limited. The objective of this research was to investigate the application of light stable isotopes and isotope ratio mass spectrometry (IRMS) to solve complex forensic cases by providing a level of discrimination not achievable utilising traditional forensic techniques. Due to the current threat of organic peroxide explosives, such as triacetone triperoxide (TATP), research was undertaken to determine the potential of IRMS to differentiate samples of TATP that had been manufactured utilising different starting materials and/or manufacturing processes. In addition, due to the prevalence of pentaerythritoltetranitrate (PETN) in detonators, detonating cord, and boosters, the potential of the IRMS technique to differentiate PETN samples from different sources was also investigated. Carbon isotope values were measured in fourteen TATP samples, with three definite groups appearing in the initial sample set based on the carbon data alone. Four additional TATP samples (in a second set of samples) were distinguishable utilising the carbon and hydrogen isotopic compositions individually, and also in combination with the oxygen isotope values. The 3D plot of the carbon, oxygen and hydrogen data demonstrated the clear discrimination of the four samples of TATP. The carbon and nitrogen isotope values measured from fifteen PETN samples, allowed samples from different sources to be readily discriminated. This paper demonstrates the successful application of IRMS to the analysis of explosives of forensic interest to assist in discriminating samples from different sources. This research represents a preliminary evaluation of the IRMS technique for the measurement of stable isotope values in TATP and PETN samples, and supports the dedication of resources for a full evaluation of this application in order to achieve Court reportable IRMS results.

Comparative analysis of 1-phenyl-2-propanone (P2P), an amphetamine-type stimulant precursor, using stable isotope ratio mass spectrometry

The isotope ratios of amphetamine type stimulants (ATS) depend as well on the precursor as the synthetic pathway. For clandestine production of amphetamine and methamphetamine, 1-phenyl-2-propanone (P2P, benzylmethylketone) is a commonly used precursor. Our aim was to determine the variation of the isotope ratios within precursor samples of one manufacturer and to compare seized samples of unknown sources to these values. delta13C(V-PDB), delta2H(V-SMOW) and delta118O(V-SMOW) isotope ratios were determined using elemental analysis (EA) and gas chromatography (GC) coupled toan isotope ratio mass spectrometer (IRMS). The comparison of all seized samples to the data of the samples of one manufacturer revealed considerable differences. The results show that IRMS provides a high potential in differentiating between precursors from different manufacturers for the clandestine production of ATS and identifying corresponding sources.

White-Rot Basidiomycete-Mediated Decomposition of C60 Fullerol

Industrially produced carbon-based nanomaterials (CNM), including fullerenes and nanotubes, will be introduced into the environment in increasing amounts in the next decades. One likely environmental chemical transformation of C60 is oxidation to C60 fullerol through both abiotic- and biotic-mediated means. Unfortunately, knowledge of the environmental fate of oxidized CNM is lacking. This study used bulk and compound-specific 13C stable isotope ratio mass spectrometry techniques and spectroradiometry analysis to examine the ability of two white rot basidiomycete fungi (Phlebia tremellosa and Trametes versicolor) to metabolize and degrade an oxygenated CNM, C60 fullerol. After 32 weeks of decay, both fungi were able to bleach and oxidize fullerol to CO2. Additionally, the fungi incorporated minor amounts of the fullerol carbon into lipid biomass. These findings are significant in that they represent the first report of direct biodegradation and utilization of any fullerene derivative and provide valuable information about the possible environmental fates of other CNM.

International Multidimensional Authenticity Specification (IMAS) Algorithm for Detection of Commercial Pomegranate Juice Adulteration

The pomegranate fruit ( Punica granatum ) has become an international high-value crop for the production of commercial pomegranate juice (PJ). The perceived consumer value of PJ is due in large part to its potential health benefits based on a significant body of medical research conducted with authentic PJ. To establish criteria for authenticating PJ, a new International Multidimensional Authenticity Specifications (IMAS) algorithm was developed through consideration of existing databases and comprehensive chemical characterization of 45 commercial juice samples from 23 different manufacturers in the United States. In addition to analysis of commercial juice samples obtained in the United States, data from other analyses of pomegranate juice and fruits including samples from Iran, Turkey, Azerbaijan, Syria, India, and China were considered in developing this protocol. There is universal agreement that the presence of a highly constant group of six anthocyanins together with punicalagins characterizes polyphenols in PJ. At a total sugar concentration of 16 degrees Brix, PJ contains characteristic sugars including mannitol at >0.3 g/100 mL. Ratios of glucose to mannitol of 4-15 and of glucose to fructose of 0.8-1.0 are also characteristic of PJ. In addition, no sucrose should be present because of isomerase activity during commercial processing. Stable isotope ratio mass spectrometry as > -25 per thousand assures that there is no added corn or cane sugar added to PJ. Sorbitol was present at <0.025 g/100 mL; maltose and tartaric acid were not detected. The presence of the amino acid proline at >25 mg/L is indicative of added grape products. Malic acid at >0.1 g/100 mL indicates adulteration with apple, pear, grape, cherry, plum, or aronia juice. Other adulteration methods include the addition of highly concentrated aronia, blueberry, or blackberry juices or natural grape pigments to poor-quality juices to imitate the color of pomegranate juice, which results in abnormal anthocyanin profiles. To adjust the astringent taste of poor-quality juice or peel extract, addition of nonpomegranate sugars is a commonly detected adulteration method. The profile generated from these analyses combined with information from existing databases and published literature has been integrated into a validated IMAS for PJ, which can be utilized to detect PJ adulteration. In this survey of commercial pomegranate juices, only 6 of 23 strictly met all of the IMAS criteria.

Gas chromatography carbon isotope ratio mass spectrometry applied to the detection of neutral alcohol in Scotch whisky: an internal reference approach

Ethanol and the volatile congeners of Scotch whisky have been analysed by GC–combustion stable isotope ratio mass spectrometry (GC–C–IRMS). Ethanol, propan-1-ol, 2-methylpropan-1-ol and methylbutan-1-ol (2- and 3-methylbutan-1-ol) have been separated using gas chromatography and their ratios of stable isotopes of carbon ( 13C/ 12C) determined by combustion isotope ratio mass spectrometry. The internal isotopic correlations for the ethanol and the congeners from the same sample were determined. A close and reproducible correlation was found for 13C/ 12C ratios of propan-1-ol and ethanol in authentic whisky samples and is the basis for determining the addition of neutral alcohol to whisky. Initial studies suggest that the method has the ability to detect the addition of neutral alcohol, depending on the cereal source of the whisky and neutral alcohol concerned, without the need for reference to databases.

Mangrove trees growing in a very saline condition but not using seawater

Mangrove trees, which develop along tropical coasts, are known to use saline water uptake. In French Guiana, the high salinity condition is the result of seawater evaporation on mud banks formed from the Amazon sediment flumes. In the back mangrove a few kilometres inland, groundwater, soil water and the xylem sap uptake in the trees remain highly salty, and only very tolerant plants like Avicennia germinans can flourish, whereas the less salt-tolerant Rhizophora mangle is more difficult to find. Curiously, the same Avicennia trees propagate on the seafront. However, stable isotope ratio mass spectrometry (IRMS) measurements and ion analysis (high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) and inductively coupled plasma atomic emission (ICP-AES) spectroscopy reveal that the origin of the water in the back mangrove is not seawater. It is freshwater percolating into the sand bars from the inland marshes and rainwater during the wet season that redissolves a marine evaporite and gives a saline groundwater. The absence of barren saltine areas ('tanne') in French Guiana could be explained by this freshwater inflow, the aquifer being no longer linked with the ocean.

Investigation of isotopic linkage between precursor and product in the synthesis of a high explosive

In criminal proceedings involving illegally manufactured substances, evidence demonstrating the manufacture is required for successful prosecution. In many circumstances the presence of manufacturing equipment and ‘recipes’ are clear indicators. However establishing chemical links between starting materials and products would be beneficial additional evidence in such circumstances. Isotope analysis is becoming more commonly employed in disputes over authenticity and provenance of materials such as food stuffs or pharmaceuticals [S. Benson, C. Lennard, P. Maynard, C. Roux, Forensic applications of isotope ratio mass spectrometry—a review, Forensic Sci. Int., 157 (2006) 1–22]. We report here the results of an isotope study investigating a link between hexamine used as a starting material and the product explosive RDX, manufactured using the Woolwich process. Isotopic composition of hexamine and RDX was analysed by stable isotope ratio mass spectrometry. Five different hexamine samples were selected from a group of eleven for use in this study. One of the five hexamine samples was used twice, providing data on the reproducibility of the synthesis. Carbon and nitrogen isotope analysis of the hexamine starting material and RDX products reveals a reproducible relationship between reactant and product.

The use of stable carbon isotopes to authenticate claims that poultry have been corn-fed

In order to comply with EU legislation governing the marketing of poultry labelled as corn-fed, chicken must be fed a diet containing at least 50% (w/w) corn for the greater part of the fattening period; however, there are currently no reliable methods to authenticate this dietary claim for poultry. The procedure reported exploits the differences in the photosynthetic pathways between maize and other cereals such as wheat, rye, barley and oats and in their differing enrichments of the 13C stable isotope from atmospheric CO2. Resulting differences in 13C and 12C are measured by Stable Isotope Ratio Mass Spectrometry. A series of controlled feeding experiments have been carried out on two breeds of chickens, and the results showed that both the fat and protein contents of the bird changed consistently in line with both the quantity and duration of corn consumption. Blind testing of the method and examination of commercially grown corn-fed chicken showed that the 13C content of the protein was a reliable marker of the dietary status of the chickens.

Network developing forensic applications of stable Isotope Ratio Mass Spectrometry conference 2005

Prof. Max Coleman of Reading University and Sean Doyle of the Forensic Explosives Laboratory (FEL), Dstl, formed the Forensic Isotope Ratio Mass Spectrometry (FIRMS) Network in 2002. As part of the continuing network development the second FIRMS conference, FIRMS 2005, was held at the Thistle Hotel, Brands Hatch, Kent on the 9th and 10th March 2005. The conference aimed to bring together IRMS researchers, end users and instrument manufacturers. The objectives of the conference were to exchange information between the researchers and end users; expand the network; review the requirement; assess the strategy for development; and chart progress since the first FIRMS conference. The conference was a mix of presentations and discussion sessions. A summary of each presentation and the discussions are given in this paper. Sean Doyle welcomed everyone to the second FIRMS conference and thanked participants for their continued support of the network. Dr. Robin Hiley, Chief Technologist, Energetics Department, Dstl was then introduced as the chairperson for the first day.