Stable Forest Cover Research Articles

The impact of forest cover decrease on the wind regime changes for the territory of Ukraine based on data of the global numerical experiment LUMIP

The article analyses and estimates the influence of partial deforestation on wind regime based on the global numerical experiment Land Use Model Intercomparison Project (LUMIP). This experiment is one of the components of the global project Coupled Model Intercomparison Project Phase 6 (CMIP 6). LUMIP aims to evaluate changes in climate characteristics and biogeochemical cycles due to partial global deforestation withsubsequent grassland establishment. A given period of retrospective modelling is divided into two subperiods. The first covers a time frame of 1850—1899 and a so-called subperiod with a minimum anthropogenic influence. During these modelled 50 years, the partial forest cover shrinkagewas conducted with a trend of 1 % per year the nodes where the forest cover exceeded 30 %. In the second subperiod (1900—1929), the forest cover was stable. Our previous papers concerned the influence of partial deforestation on the radiation, temperature, and moisture regimes in Ukraine. The present paper continues the analysis and is dedicated to the impact of partial deforestation on changes in the mean monthly wind surface speed based on data from available Global Climate Models (GCMs).Deforestation caused quantitative changes in wind speed during all months of the year for all GCMs used in the research, however, with a different sensitivity. Maximum changes were obtained from the model with the biggest step in forest cover shrinkage among all GCMs, approximately 1.6 % a node. It should be emphasized that the biggest changes occurredin the nodes where the forest was substituted with grassland. The obtained correlations of the deforestation and mean monthly wind speed were moderately or highly negative for all seasons. The maximum wind speed and the highest changes are during the winter. In January, for example,the maximum changes can reach up to 0.3 m/s per 10 years. During spring and autumn, such tendencies generallyvary up to 0.1—0.2 m/s per 10 years. The differences in wind speed between the subperiod of stable forest cover and the partial deforestation are up to 1.2 m/s at a particular grid point on the territory of Ukraine.

Analysis of forest cover dynamics in Belarus based on remote sensing data

An analysis of the forest vegetation cover dynamics in Belarus based on the integration of satellite cartographic products and remote sensing data is presented in the article. Currently, the stable forest cover occupies 7209.0 thousand hectares (75.8 %); the forests formed on the previously non-forest lands – 1459.5 thousand hectares (14.7 %). The loss of forests amounted to 1569.3 thousand hectares for the period 1985–2020. For the period 2016–2020, the average annual deforestation area was 83.4 thousand ha/year, or 2.3 times higher than the average one for 1985–2015. The largest forest loss areas were in 2016–2018. Compared to the data of the National Statistical Committee for 2020, the difference with the actual area of the forest-covered land was 664.9 thousand hectares (7.4 % discrepancy). The area of the forested land according to the remote sensing data is 8999.3 thousand hectares, the forest cover is 43.3 %. The proposed approach to analyzing the forest vegetation changes based on remote sensing data is a high-quality and cost-effective information support for managerial decisions on the forest use.

Smallholder agriculture results in stable forest cover in riverine Amazonia

Recent studies point to a rapid increase in small-scale deforestation in Amazonia. Where people live along the rivers of the basin, customary shifting cultivation creates a zone of secondary forest, orchards and crop fields around communities in what was once was old-growth terra firme forest. Visible from satellite imagery as a narrow but extensive band of forest disturbance along rivers, this zone is often considered as having been deforested. In this paper we assess forest disturbance and the dynamics of secondary forests around 275 communities along a 725 km transect on the Napo and Amazon Rivers in the Peruvian Amazon. We used high-resolution satellite imagery to define the ‘working area’ around each community, based on the spatial distribution of forest/field patches and the visible boundary between old-growth and secondary forests. Land cover change was assessed between ca. 1989 and 2015 using CLASlite™ image classification. Statistical analyses using community and household-level data from the Peruvian Amazon Rural Livelihoods and Poverty project identified the predictors of the extent of forest disturbance and the dynamics of secondary forests around communities. Although shifting cultivation is the primary driver of old-growth forest loss, we find that secondary forest cover, which replaces old-growth forests, is stable through time, and that both the area and rate of expansion into old-growth forests are modest when compared to forest conversion in Peru for colonization and plantation development. Our findings challenge the notion that smallholder agriculture along rivers is an important threat to terra firme forests in Amazonia and point to the importance of protecting forests on community lands from loggers, colonists and other outsiders.

Vietnam’s forest cover changes 2005–2016: Veering from transition to (yet more) transaction?

• Notions of ‘forest transition in Vietnam’ imply a long-term trend towards a stable forest cover. • New forest policies in Vietnam largely concentrate on fostering economic productivity. • Renewed deforestation has been linked to policy-driven decreases in ‘protection forestlands’. • Until now, ‘payment for forest ecosystem service’ policies had no visible effect to counter forest loss. • Aspects of ‘good governance’ are important for a ‘sustainable transition’ in forestry. In Vietnam, rapid deforestation until the 1980s was followed by a period of widespread reforestation. Acclaimed as the first ‘forest transition’ in Southeast Asia, this turn-around resulted from major environmental/socio-economic policy changes (notably land titling), successes in agriculture and plantation forestry, and state-led efforts in upland forest protection/restoration. We investigated forest trends after new shifts in forest governance towards more commodity/production orientation, underlining that recent advances are not irreversible. Using official provincial data and applying multivariate statistics, we elicited major factors influencing cover changes of two types of ‘physical forests’ (‘natural forests’ and exotic-species ‘planted forests’), in relation with changes in ‘political forestlands’ of contrasting types (lands designated either for forest ‘protection’ or for wood ‘production’), comparing periods before (2005–2010) and after (2011–2016) the introduction of Payments for Forest Ecosystem Services (PFES) policies. We find that a ‘forest transition’ only continues if the tree plantation boom (now reaching remote/marginal/poor upland provinces) is factored into ‘forest change’. Country-wide natural forest cover decreased slightly since 2006, with however regionally differentiated trends (northern increases versus southern losses, renewed deforestation near population centres). Widespread re-allocation of protection forestlands to production allowed expansion of plantations. Natural forests decreased in provinces where protection forestlands were reduced, and/or where – during 2011–2016 – plantation forests and crop fields expanded. PFES policies exerted minor influences (none to negative) on natural forest cover. PFES funding concentrated on provinces where protection forestlands contracted, and where forestland allocation to households was comparatively undeveloped. Conversely, ‘good governance’ indicators were positively correlated with sustained protection of natural forestlands. We conclude that governance emphasis on forest protection/restoration during the 1990s-2000s [‘transition’] has reverted towards a primacy of forests as spaces of economic production [‘transaction’]. Policy schemes aimed at forest protection and poverty reduction need to incorporate efficient and transparent mechanisms of participation, monitoring, and adaptive management.

Decentralization can help reduce deforestation when user groups engage with local government

Policy makers around the world tout decentralization as an effective tool in the governance of natural resources. Despite the popularity of these reforms, there is limited scientific evidence on the environmental effects of decentralization, especially in tropical biomes. This study presents evidence on the institutional conditions under which decentralization is likely to be successful in sustaining forests. We draw on common-pool resource theory to argue that the environmental impact of decentralization hinges on the ability of reforms to engage local forest users in the governance of forests. Using matching techniques, we analyze longitudinal field observations on both social and biophysical characteristics in a large number of local government territories in Bolivia (a country with a decentralized forestry policy) and Peru (a country with a much more centralized forestry policy). We find that territories with a decentralized forest governance structure have more stable forest cover, but only when local forest user groups actively engage with the local government officials. We provide evidence in support of a possible causal process behind these results: When user groups engage with the decentralized units, it creates a more enabling environment for effective local governance of forests, including more local government-led forest governance activities, fora for the resolution of forest-related conflicts, intermunicipal cooperation in the forestry sector, and stronger technical capabilities of the local government staff.

Survival and growth of native Tachigali vulgaris and exotic Eucalyptus urophylla × Eucalyptus grandis trees in degraded soils with biochar amendment in southern Amazonia

The impact of agricultural and livestock activities on tropical forests often results in long-lasting damage to soil and vegetation. In undisturbed tropical forests, nutrient stocks tend to be larger in the aboveground biomass than in the soil profile; therefore, deforested sites may remain bare for decades due to nutrient limitation. In such circumstance, amelioration of edaphic conditions and planting of tree species adapted to open canopy conditions (pioneers) could help restore ecosystem functions while providing a sustainable source of timber and prompting natural succession. The aim of this study was to evaluate the use of biochar as a soil amendment that could accelerate the reforestation of degraded lands. We used a randomized block design with five treatments and four replications, comparing the performance of exotic eucalyptus (Eucalyptus urophylla×Eucalyptus grandis) and native Tachigali vulgaris trees. We monitored reforested plots for 49months, evaluating tree survival and growth rates, litter production, canopy cover and density of invasive grasses. The addition of biochar in the soil did not result in significant differences in tree survival or productivity when compared to controls. Comparing the two species, native trees (T. vulgaris) performed better by all metrics, showing 52% survival and producing 241.7Mgha−1 of aboveground biomass after four years of growth. During that same period the survival rate of eucalyptus was 38% and the aboveground productivity was only 82.4Mgha−1. In contrast with eucalyptus plantations, T. vulgaris showed rapid canopy cover and completely suppressed invasive grasses, generating up to 11.7Mgha−1 more litter than eucalyptus trees. Although eucalyptus is one of the most commonly used species in reforestation for timber, charcoal, and pulp and paper production in Brazil, our results demonstrate that T. vulgaris has the potential to replace eucalyptus in commercial plantations with the added benefit of being a native species that can promote the establishment of a stable forest cover in degraded sites.

Evaluating forest transition based on a multi-scale approach: forest area dynamics in Switzerland 1850–2000

A trend of forest area expansion after decades of decline is taking place in many countries around the globe. In Switzerland, forest cover has been expanding since at least the mid-nineteenth century. However, little is known about the patterns of forest area dynamics on a long-term, national scale, nor regarding the precise time of forest transition (FT). In the present study, we reconstruct the trajectories of forest cover over the past 150 years based on historical maps and contemporary national forest inventory data for the purpose of analyzing forest area dynamics at multi-spatial scales. At the national scale, total forest area increased continuously from around 20 % in 1850 to 30 % in 2000, while ancient forest area decreased from 20 % in 1850 down to 11 % in 2000. FT events occurred at the regional scale in the Eastern, Southern and Western Alps around 1880. Since then, forest area has almost doubled in the Southern Alps. In contrast, the Central Plateau is the biogeographical region with the most stable forest cover. The results from the analysis at the local scale confirm the high dynamics in forest cover throughout the study period, causing a steady decline in ancient forest area. These variations in forest cover dynamics confirm the crucial importance of the choice of spatial scale. Historical maps were essential for this long-term study.

Динаміка лісистості Українських Карпат протягом 1988 – 2007 років: геоекологічний аналіз засобами геоматики

Landsat TM/ETM+ images covering the whole Ukrainian section of the Carpathian Ecoregion and representing four time periods (1988–1989, 1994, 2000–2002, 2006–2007) were processed using SVM-classification and overlaid to detect changes in forest cover. The changes were analysed for the whole study area, for 33 individual meso-ecoregions and their seven orographic classes as well as for the 14 main river basins. The study showed decrease of forest disturbances, mainly caused by clear-cuttings, after 1988 and their slight increase after 2000 together with a significant increase of new forest succession areas. The obtained indices differ from those previously mentioned in Ukrainian publications. The distribution of the forest cover and its disturbances across the ecoregions and the basins reveals generally sustainable pattern – the stable forest cover increases with the growth of mean relative and absolute elevations. Relatively high recent disturbance rates in some meso-ecoregions, especially of low- and medium-mountains, are possibly caused by massive die-back of cultural spruce stands. However, it is not expedient to further increase the forest cover of the river basins and the region in general. Key words: Ukrainian Carpathians, forest cover change, remote sensing, ecoregions, river basins.

Carrot or Stick? Modelling How Landowner Behavioural Responses Can Cause Incentive-Based Forest Governance to Backfire

Mitigating the negative impacts of declining worldwide forest cover remains a significant socio-ecological challenge, due to the dominant role of human decision-making. Here we use a Markov chain model of land-use dynamics to examine the impact of governance on forest cover in a region. Each land parcel can be either forested or barren (deforested), and landowners decide whether to deforest their parcel according to perceived value (utility). We focus on three governance strategies: yearly incentive for conservation, one-time penalty for deforestation and one-time incentive for reforestation. The incentive and penalty are incorporated into the expected utility of forested land, which decreases the net gain of deforestation. By analyzing the equilibrium and stability of the landscape dynamics, we observe four possible outcomes: a stationary-forested landscape, a stationary-deforested landscape, an unstable landscape fluctuating near the equilibrium, and a cyclic-forested landscape induced by synchronized deforestation. We find that the two incentive-based strategies often result in highly fluctuating forest cover over decadal time scales or longer, and in a few cases, reforestation incentives actually decrease the average forest cover. In contrast, a penalty for deforestation results in the stable persistence of forest cover (generally >30%). The idea that larger conservation incentives will always yield higher and more stable forest cover is not supported in our findings. The decision to deforest is influenced by more than a simple, “rational” cost-benefit analysis: social learning and myopic, stochastic decision-making also have important effects. We conclude that design of incentive programs may need to account for potential counter-productive long-term effects due to behavioural feedbacks.

Asymmetric forest transition driven by the interaction of socioeconomic development and environmental heterogeneity in Central America

Forest transitions (FT) have been observed in many developed countries and more recently in the developing world. However, our knowledge of FT from tropical regions is mostly derived from case studies from within a particular country, making it difficult to generalize findings across larger regions. Here we overcome these difficulties by conducting a recent (2001-2010) satellite-based analysis of trends in forest cover across Central America, stratified by biomes, which we related to socioeconomic variables associated with human development. Results show a net decrease of woody vegetation resulting from 12,201 km(2) of deforestation of moist forests and 6,825 km(2) of regrowth of conifer and dry forests. The Human Development Index was the socioeconomic variable best associated with forest cover change. The least-developed countries, Nicaragua and Guatemala, experienced both rapid deforestation of moist forests and significant recovery of conifer and dry forests. In contrast, the most developed countries, Panama and Costa Rica, had net woody vegetation gain and a more stable forest cover configuration. These results imply a good agreement with FT predictions of forest change in relation to socioeconomic development, but strong asymmetry in rates and directions of change largely dependent upon the biome where change is occurring. The FT model should be refined by incorporating ecological and socioeconomic heterogeneity, particularly in multicountry and regional studies. These asymmetric patterns of forest change should be evaluated when developing strategies for conserving biodiversity and environmental services.

Roads as Drivers of Change: Trajectories across the Tri‑National Frontier in MAP, the Southwestern Amazon

Regional studies of land cover change are often limited by available data and in terms of comparability across regions, by the transferability of methods. This research addresses the role of roads and infrastructure improvements across a tri-national frontier region with similar climatic and biophysical conditions but very different trajectories of forest clearing. The standardization of methodologies and the extensive spatial and temporal framework of the analysis are exciting as they allow us to monitor a dynamic region with global significance as it enters an era of increased road connectivity and massive potential forest loss. Our study region is the “MAP” frontier, which covers Madre de Dios in Peru, Acre in Brazil, and Pando in Bolivia. This tri-national frontier is being integrated into the global economy via the paving of the Inter-Oceanic Highway which links the region to ports in the Atlantic and Pacific, constituting a major infrastructure change within just the last decade. Notably, there are differences in the extent of road paving among the three sides of the tri-national frontier, with paving complete in Acre, underway in Madre de Dios, and incipient in Pando. Through a multi-temporal analysis of land cover in the MAP region from 1986 to 2005, we found that rates of deforestation differ across the MAP frontier, with higher rates in Acre, followed by Madre de Dios and the lowest rates in Pando, although the dominant land cover across the region is still stable forest cover (89% overall). For all dates in the study period, deforestation rates drop with distance from major roads although the distance before this drop off appears to relate to development, with Acre influencing forests up to around 45 km out, Madre de Dios to about 18 km out and less of a discernable effect or distance value in Pando. As development occurs, the converted forest areas saturate close to roads, resulting in increasing rates of deforestation at further distances and patch consolidation of clearings over time. We can use this trend as a basis for future change predictions, with Acre providing a guide to likely future development for Madre de Dios, and in time potentially for Pando. Given the correspondence of road paving to deforestation, our findings imply that as road paving increases connectivity, flows of people and goods will accelerate across this landscape, increasing the likelihood of dramatic future changes on all sides of the tri‑national frontier.

Accessibility, Demography and Protection: Drivers of Forest Stability and Change at Multiple Scales in the Cauvery Basin, India

The Cauvery basin of Karnataka State encompasses a range of land cover types, from dense forest areas and plantations in the Western Ghats hills, to fertile agricultural lands in the river valley. Recent demographic changes, rapid economic development and urbanization have led to the conversion of vast stretches of forested land into plantations and permanent agriculture. We examine the human drivers of forest cover change between 2001 and 2006, using MODIS 250 m data at multiple spatial scales of nested administrative units i.e., districts and taluks. Population density does not emerge as a major driver of forest distribution or deforestation. Protected areas and landscape accessibility play a major role in driving the distribution of stable forest cover at different spatial scales. The availability of forested land for further clearing emerges as a major factor impacting the distribution of deforestation, with new deforestation taking place in regions with challenging topography. This research highlights the importance of using a regional approach to study land cover change, and indicates that the drivers of forest change may be very different in long settled landscapes, for which little is known in comparison to frontier forests.

A comparative assessment of land cover dynamics of three protected forest areas in tropical eastern Africa

Processes of deforestation, known to threaten tropical forest biodiversity, have not yet been studied sufficiently in East Africa. To shed light on the patterns and causes of human influences on protected forest ecosystems, comparisons of different study areas regarding land cover dynamics and potential drivers are needed. We analyze the development of land cover since the early 1970s for three protected East African rainforests and their surrounding farmlands and assess the relationship between the observed changes in the context of the protection status of the forests. Processing of Landsat satellite imagery of eight or seven time steps in regular intervals results in 12 land cover classes for the Kakamega-Nandi forests (Kenya) and Budongo Forest (Uganda) whereas ten are distinguished for Mabira Forest (Uganda). The overall classification accuracy assessed for the year 2001 or 2003 is similarly high for all three study areas (81% to 85%). The time series reveal that, despite their protection status, Kakamega-Nandi forests and Mabira Forest experienced major forest decrease, the first a continuous forest loss of 31% between 1972/1973 and 2001, the latter an abrupt loss of 24% in the late 1970s/early 1980s. For both forests, the temporally dense time series show short-term fluctuations in forest classes (e.g., areas of forest regrowth since the 1980s or exotic secondary bushland species from the 1990s onwards). Although selectively logged, Budongo Forest shows a much more stable forest cover extent. A visual overlay with population distribution for all three regions clearly indicates a relationship between forest loss and areas of high population density, suggesting population pressure as a main driver of deforestation. The revealed forest losses due to local and commercial exploitation further demonstrate that weak management impedes effective forest protection in East Africa.

Stable Forest Cover under Increasing Populations of Swidden Cultivators in Central Laos: the Roles of Intrinsic Culture and Extrinsic Wildlife Trade

Robichaud, W. G., A. R.E. Sinclair, N. Odarkor-Lanquaye, and B. Klinkenberg. 2009. Stable forest cover under increasing populations of swidden cultivators in central Laos: the roles of intrinsic culture and extrinsic wildlife trade. Ecology and Society 14(1): 33. https://doi.org/10.5751/ES-02873-140133

Patterns of Loss and Regeneration of Tropical Dry Forest in Madagascar: The Social Institutional Context

Loss of tropical forests and changes in land-use/land-cover are of growing concern worldwide. Although knowledge exists about the institutional context in which tropical forest loss is embedded, little is known about the role of social institutions in influencing regeneration of tropical forests. In the present study we used Landsat images from southern Madagascar from three different years (1984, 1993 and 2000) and covering 5500 km2, and made a time-series analysis of three distinct large-scale patterns: 1) loss of forest cover, 2) increased forest cover, and 3) stable forest cover. Institutional characteristics underlying these three patterns were analyzed, testing the hypothesis that forest cover change is a function of strength and enforcement of local social institutions. The results showed a minor decrease of 7% total forest cover in the study area during the whole period 1984–2000, but an overall net increase of 4% during the period 1993–2000. The highest loss of forest cover occurred in a low human population density area with long distances to markets, while a stable forest cover occurred in the area with highest population density and good market access. Analyses of institutions revealed that loss of forest cover occurred mainly in areas characterized by insecure property rights, while areas with well-defined property rights showed either regenerating or stable forest cover. The results thus corroborate our hypothesis. The large-scale spontaneous regeneration dominated by native endemic species appears to be a result of a combination of changes in precipitation, migration and decreased human population and livestock grazing pressure, but under conditions of maintained and well-defined property rights. Our study emphasizes the large capacity of a semi-arid system to spontaneously regenerate, triggered by decreased pressures, but where existing social institutions mitigate other drivers of deforestation and alternative land-use.

Some Problems on the Genesis of “Kurboku” Soils

The term “Kuroboku” soils is a tentative name for black-colored, mellow soils of both volcanogenous and non-volcanogenous origin. Pedological studies of the soils, especially on their humus accumulation suggest their genesis under grass vegetation and monsoonal climate. Part of the discussion on these problems was already presented in this Bulletin (Vol. 3, pp. 40-50).It is revealed, based on field occurrence, that the “Kuroboku” soils have been formed since an age not so older than late Pleistocene.The possible genetic conditions deduced from pedological studies seem to correspond with the history of late Quaternary. The climate aquired its present monsoonal character probably since the end of the last glacial age. No extensive grass vegetation could be introduced without destruction of naturally stable forest cover under the monsoonal climate. The destruction might be accelerated under more advanced human culture starting at later stage of the pre-Jomon culture (latest Pleistocene).