Stable Between-person Differences Research Articles

Social media use does not increase individual-based relative deprivation: Evidence from a five-year RI-CLPM

Although a growing literature demonstrates that social media usage fosters upward social comparisons, the potential for social media use to elicit perceptions of unjust disadvantage relative to others remains unexplored. We address this oversight by leveraging six annual waves of a nationwide random probability sample of adults (ages 18–99; N = 62,017) to examine the average between- and within-person associations between social media use and feelings of individual-based relative deprivation (IRD) over time. Results from our preregistered analyses revealed that those who are high social media users across time tend to also experience higher levels of IRD. After adjusting for these stable between-person differences, within-person changes in social media use failed to predict changes in IRD over time (or vice versa). Subsequent exploratory analyses replicated these results across different age- and gender-based subgroups. Our results relieve concerns that social media use fosters long-term perceptions of disadvantage over time within individuals and suggest that concerns over the long-term detrimental effects of social media use on social comparison processes may be unfounded. These results also highlight the need to separate between-person stability from within-person change when investigating temporal precedence in longitudinal research.

The within-between dispute in cross-lagged panel research and how to move forward.

How to model cross-lagged relations in panel data continues to be a source of disagreement in psychological research. While the cross-lagged panel model (CLPM) was the modeling approach of choice for many years, it has also been criticized repeatedly for its inability to separate within-person dynamics from stable between-person differences. Hence, various alternative models that disentangle these forms of variability have been proposed, and these are now rapidly gaining popularity. But not everyone agrees this is the right way forward. CLPM advocates point out that many psychological theories are concerned with longer-lasting differences between individuals, while these differences are not allowed to contribute to the estimation of cross-lagged effects in the novel within-between approaches. Reasoning this way, it is argued that the CLPM is superior when studying such processes, precisely because it includes the chronic between-person differences when estimating prospective effects. The goal of the current paper is to consider this within-between dispute in its broader context and to examine various directions in which this discussion needs expansion. To this end, three different perspectives are adopted: that of the study design, patterns in empirical data, and the nature of our research questions. It will be argued that to move forward, we need to look beyond the narrow focus on how to model our correlational panel data. Progress will involve theorizing more deliberately about the timescale that a process operates on, being more explicit about our research questions, considering alternative designs and models, and familiarizing ourselves with relevant discussions in other disciplines. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2023 APA, all rights reserved).

A Dynamical Systems Investigation of the Co-regulation between Perceived Daily Parental Warmth and Adolescent Attention-deficit/hyperactivity Disorder Symptoms.

Longitudinal research demonstrates that child ADHD symptoms and behaviors exhibit reciprocal associations with parenting behaviors over time. However, minimal research has investigated these associations and their dynamic links at the daily level. Intensive longitudinal data can disentangle stable between-person differences from within-person fluctuations and reveal nuanced short-term family dynamics on a micro timescale. Using 30-day daily diary data from a community sample of 86 adolescents (Mage = 14.5, 55% female, 56% White, 22% Asian) and latent differential equation modeling, this study examined the links between perceived daily parental warmth and ADHD symptoms as coupled dynamical systems. The results show that the magnitude of fluctuations in perceived daily parental warmth generally remains stable, while elevated ADHD symptoms return to their normal level over time. Perceived parental warmth is sensitive to change in ADHD symptoms such that adolescents feel that their parents will fine-tune their warmth with gradual changes when adolescents demonstrate heightened symptoms. There are substantial between-family differences in these regulating system dynamics. Among families with more baseline parental non-harsh discipline, both perceived parental warmth and ADHD symptoms tend to be more stable and fluctuate less often. Intensive longitudinal data and dynamical systems approaches offer a new lens to uncover short-term family dynamics and adolescent adjustment at a refined micro level. Future research should explore antecedents and consequences of between-family differences in these short-term family dynamics on multiple timescales.

"Between-person methods provide limited insight about within-person belief systems": Correction to Brandt and Morgan (2022).

Reports an error in "Between-person methods provide limited insight about within-person belief systems" by Mark J. Brandt and G. Scott Morgan (Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 2022[Sep], Vol 123[3], 621-635). In the article (https://doi.org/10.1037/pspp0000404), the third sentence in the second paragraph of the Participants and Procedure section should appear instead as follows: Over this period, participants complete two surveys per month (12 waves in total). Each survey is open for approximately 2 weeks. Participants can complete the survey at any point during the 2 week period. The online version of this article has been corrected. (The following abstract of the original article appeared in record 2022-19898-001.) Belief systems are individual-level phenomena that describe the interrelationships of the political attitudes of a person. However, the modal study of the structure of political ideologies and beliefs uses cross-sectional survey data to estimate what is central to the belief system or the dimensionality of the belief system, aggregating across many people. Cross-sectional data, however, are ill-suited to the task of studying individual-level phenomena because they contain an unobservable mixture of within-person and between-person variation. In this project, we use longitudinal datasets from the Netherlands (representative) and the United States (convenience), spanning between 6 months and 10 years, to we ask whether between-subjects methods can help us understand the within-person structure of belief systems. First, we use Bayesian STARTS models (Lüdtke et al., 2018) to assess what type of variance cross-sectional studies are likely tapping into. We find that variability in measures of ideology and political beliefs is primarily due to stable between-person differences, with relatively smaller amounts of variation due to within-person differences. Second, we estimate between-person, within-person, and cross-sectional correlations between all items in our study and find that between-person correlations are larger and in some cases differ in their direction from within-person correlations. Furthermore, cross-sectional correlations are most similar to between-person correlations. Taken together, these findings indicate that the modal study may help describe differences between people, but is ill-suited to tell us about the structure of individuals' belief systems. New methods are necessary for a complete understanding of political belief systems that clarify both between- and within-person processes. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2022 APA, all rights reserved).

Modeling dynamic personality theories in a continuous-time framework: An illustration.

Personality psychology has traditionally focused on stable between-person differences. Yet, recent theoretical developments and empirical insights have led to a new conceptualization of personality as a dynamic system (e.g., Cybernetic Big Five Theory). Such dynamic systems comprise several components that need to be conceptually distinguished and mapped to a statistical model for estimation. In the current work, we illustrate how common components from these new dynamic personality theories may be implemented in a continuous time-modeling framework. As an empirical example, we reanalyze experience sampling data with N=180 persons (with on average T=40 [SD=8] measurement occasions) to investigate four different effects between momentary happiness, momentary extraverted behavior, and the perception of a situation as social: (1) between-person effects, (2) contemporaneous effects, (3) autoregressive effects, and (4) cross-lagged effects. We highlight that these four effects must not necessarily point in the same direction, which is in line with assumptions from dynamic personality theories.

Between-person methods provide limited insight about within-person belief systems.

Belief systems are individual-level phenomena that describe the interrelationships of the political attitudes of a person. However, the modal study of the structure of political ideologies and beliefs uses cross-sectional survey data to estimate what is central to the belief system or the dimensionality of the belief system, aggregating across many people. Cross-sectional data, however, are ill-suited to the task of studying individual-level phenomena because they contain an unobservable mixture of within-person and between-person variation. In this project, we use longitudinal datasets from the Netherlands (representative) and the United States (convenience), spanning between 6 months and 10 years, to we ask whether between-subjects methods can help us understand the within-person structure of belief systems. First, we use Bayesian STARTS models (Lüdtke et al., 2018) to assess what type of variance cross-sectional studies are likely tapping into. We find that variability in measures of ideology and political beliefs is primarily due to stable between-person differences, with relatively smaller amounts of variation due to within-person differences. Second, we estimate between-person, within-person, and cross-sectional correlations between all items in our study and find that between-person correlations are larger and in some cases differ in their direction from within-person correlations. Furthermore, cross-sectional correlations are most similar to between-person correlations. Taken together, these findings indicate that the modal study may help describe differences between people, but is ill-suited to tell us about the structure of individuals' belief systems. New methods are necessary for a complete understanding of political belief systems that clarify both between- and within-person processes. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2022 APA, all rights reserved).

Early Emergence of Career Self-Management Skills among Adolescents: A Dynamic Perspective

In times of changing labor market and rapid technological development, career self-management is becoming increasingly important for individuals to manage the frequent and complex transitions within and between learning and work. This is particularly important in the earliest stages of career development, namely the career preparation phase, where career self-management skills need to be developed and applied. Drawing on different career theories, this six-wave longitudinal study investigates the dynamic link between motivational aspects (i.e., career clarity), knowledge (i.e., job market knowledge), and career self-management actions (i.e., environmental exploration) at a intra-person level and over time. Based on a sample of 1297 students of 7th-9th grades, I tested a random intercept cross-lagged panel model (RI-CLPM) to examine within-person dynamics across six time-points while accounting for stable between-person differences. The findings support the assumed dynamics in these variables in that increases in environmental exploration predicted subsequent increases in career clarity and job market knowledge. Moreover, increased career clarity and job market knowledge, in turn, predicted subsequent increases in environmental exploration. I discuss the findings taking into account a dynamic intra-person approach to understand key career preparation constructs.

Daily dynamics of grandiose narcissism: distribution, stability, and trait relations of admiration and rivalry states and state contingencies

On the basis of the Narcissistic Admiration and Rivalry Concept and recent theories on narcissistic pursuit of status, we provide a differentiated analysis of individual differences in the within-person dynamics of grandiose narcissism. In two daily diary studies (Sample 1: 56 days; Sample 2: 82 days; total participants: N = 198; total observations: N = 12,404), we investigated the degree, stability, and trait correlates of individual differences in average narcissism-relevant states (perceived status success, perceived admiration and rejection, positive and negative affect, and assertive and hostile behavior) as well as individual differences in within-person contingencies between these states. The results indicated substantial and stable between-person differences in averaged states that were related to their corresponding narcissism trait self-reports. State contingencies showed substantial strength, significant interindividual differences, and stability across the 56 and 82 days, respectively. We only found weak support for associations between state contingencies and trait narcissism self-reports. These findings support a differentiated approach to the conceptualization and assessment of grandiose state narcissism and call for even more comprehensive and fine-grained investigations.

Love in the Time of COVID-19: A Multi-Wave Study Examining the Salience of Sexual and Relationship Health During the COVID-19 Pandemic.

The current study used Family Systems Theory as a framework to clarify the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on sexual, romantic, and individual functioning. Specifically, sexual and romantic functioning were modeled as key mechanisms linking COVID-19 related stressors (as predictors) to aspects of individual functioning over time (as outcomes). A sample of 1,241 sexually active adults in relationships (47% married/engaged) was recruited from March 5 to May 5, 2020: 82% White, 66% women, M = 34 years old, 58% heterosexual. All participants completed a baseline survey and 642 participants completed at least one of the six, monthly, follow-up surveys. Multilevel SEM models evaluated the model both at the level of stable between-person differences (i.e., level 2) and at the level of within-person change across time (i.e., level 1). The findings suggested that COVID-19 related stress was predictive of lower sexual, romantic, and individual functioning in both levels of the model. Significant indirect paths supported the proposed mediation at the level of within-person change across time: elevations in COVID-19 stress within specific months predicted corresponding drops in sexual functioning, which in turn predicted corresponding drops in romantic functioning, which in turn predicted corresponding drops in individual well-being (highlighting points of intervention). In contrast, at the level of between-person differences, stable levels of sexual and relationship satisfaction across the 6 months of the study were not associated with stable levels of COVID-19 stressors (representing sources of resilience that promoted well-being) and stable levels of stress from social isolation predicted stably higher amounts of communicating affection to one’s loved ones (suggesting a need for affiliation in the face of chronic stress) whereas stable difficulties with orgasms were linked to stable irritability toward partners and depressive symptoms. Multigroup analyses suggested that the findings generalized across gender, age, race/ethnicity, sexual orientation, relationship stage, and cohabitation groups. Spillover effects within a Family Systems Theory framework clarify how upheaval of the COVID-19 pandemic could have impacted sexual, romantic, and individual functioning in a process-oriented framework, highlighting sources of resilience (sexual satisfaction, communicating affection) and risk (orgasm difficulties).

Exploring the dynamics of protean career orientation, career management behaviors, and subjective career success: An action regulation theory approach

Due to increased dynamics in the world of work and the resulting responsibility of individuals to shape their careers more independently, there is an increased need to focus on the individual as an active agent in the development of a successful career. Drawing on action regulation theory, this four-wave longitudinal study investigates the dynamic relations between protean career orientation, engagement in career self-management behaviors, and subjective career success over time. Based on a sample of N = 574 German employees, we tested a random intercept cross-lagged panel model (RI-CLPM) to focus on within-person dynamics across four time-points while accounting for stable between-person differences. We found partial support for assumed dynamics in these variables, in that increases in protean career orientation predicted subsequent increases in career self-management behaviors. Moreover, increased protean career orientation and subjective career success (but not career self-management behaviors) predicted further increases in the same respective states. However, increases in career behaviors did not predict increases in subjective career success and increases in subjective career success did not predict increases in protean career orientation or career self-management behaviors. We discuss the findings in light of adopting a dynamic within-person approach to understand key career development constructs.

Does clinically relevant psychopathology in adolescents necessarily require treatment or does it “grow out”?

ABSTRACT Objective: To determine the treatment effect of psychodynamic therapy for adolescents in comparison to normative developmental progression in two groups without treatment: healthy adolescents and adolescents with juvenile diabetes. Research Design and Methods: In a 3-wave longitudinal study, n = 531 adolescents (n = 303 treated adolescents, n = 119 healthy, n = 109 with diabetes) and their parents filled out psychopathology questionnaires (Youth Self-Report [YSR] and Child Behaviour Checklist [CBCL]). Growth curve modeling (GCM) was used to examine within-person change in psychopathology while controlling for stable between-person differences. Results: GCM analyses revealed significant within-person reductions in patients’ YSR and CBCL (d = 1.02–1.99) at the end of treatment. When accounted for the control groups’ developmental progression (d = .14–.94), patients’ within-person change remained significantly higher (d = .48-.82). In all three groups, parents rated the severity of psychopathology significantly lower, and within-person change significantly higher than the adolescents him/herself. Conclusions: Psychodynamic therapy led to a significant symptom reduction in treated adolescents and was superior to development-related symptom changes occurring in the two control groups. Hence, clinically relevant symptoms in adolescents do not “grow out”, but require psychotherapeutic treatment. Differences between adolescents and their parents in the evaluation of symptom severity and change require attention in psychotherapy treatment and research.

A trait-like propensity to experience internalizing symptoms is associated with problem alcohol involvement across adulthood, but not adolescence.

There are stable between-person differences in an internalizing "trait," or the propensity to experience symptoms of internalizing disorders, such as social anxiety, generalized anxiety disorder, and depression. Trait internalizing may serve as a marker of heightened risk for problem alcohol outcomes (such as heavier drinking, binge drinking, or alcohol dependence). However, prior research on the association between internalizing symptoms and alcohol outcomes has been largely mixed in adolescence, with more consistent support for an association during adulthood. It may be that trait internalizing is only associated with problem alcohol outcomes in adulthood, after individuals have gained experience with alcohol. Some evidence suggested that these effects may be stronger for women than men. We used data from a community sample (n = 790) interviewed during adolescence (ages 14-16) and again at ages 21, 24, 27, 30, 33, and 39. Using generalized estimating equations, we tested the association between trait internalizing and alcohol outcomes during both adolescence and adulthood, and tested whether adult trait internalizing mediated the association between adolescent trait internalizing and adult alcohol outcomes. Trait internalizing in adulthood (but not adolescence) was associated with more frequent alcohol use, binge drinking and symptoms of alcohol use disorders, and mediated the effects of adolescent trait internalizing on alcohol outcomes. We observed no moderation by gender or change in these associations over time. Understanding the developmental pathways of trait internalizing may provide further insights into preventing the emergence of problem alcohol use behavior during adulthood. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2020 APA, all rights reserved).

Using Time-Lagged Panel Data Analysis to Study Mechanisms of Change in Psychotherapy Research: Methodological Recommendations.

The introduction of novel methodologies in the past decade has advanced research on mechanisms of change in observational studies. Time-lagged panel models allow to track session-by-session changes and focus on within-patient associations between predictors and outcomes. This shift is crucial, as change in mechanisms inherently takes place at a within-patient level. These models also enable preliminary casual inferences, which can guide the development of effective personalized interventions that target mechanisms of change, used at specific treatment phases for optimal effect. Given their complexity, panel models need to be implemented with caution, as different modeling choices can significantly affect results and reduce replicability. We outline three central methodological recommendations for use of time-lagged panel analysis to study mechanisms of change: a) Taking patient-specific effects into account, separating out stable between-person differences from within-person fluctuations over time; b) properly controlling for autoregressive effects; c) considering long-term time-trends. We demonstrate these recommendations in an applied example examining the session-by-session alliance-outcome association in a naturalistic psychotherapy study. We present limitations of time-lagged panel analysis and future directions.

One situation doesn’t fit all: Variability and stability of state willingness to communicate in a Chinese College English classroom

Willingness to communicate (WTC) used to be studied as a relatively stable, trait-like predisposition; however, recently attention has shifted to the more dynamic, state-like components of WTC. This research investigates variability and stability in state WTC, particularly focusing on within-person variability, which may lead to stable between-person differences, and situational antecedents that can either promote or hinder state WTC in L2 classrooms. To investigate whether, how and why state WTC varies over time, this study used a high-density repeated measurement design and a group of Chinese university students to describe fluctuations in state WTC in English classrooms over one semester. Data related to state WTC and selected situational antecedents were collected through a self-report questionnaire and statistically analysed. It was found that state WTC varied systematically within the person across the semester, and this variability was systematically related to changes in the psychological properties of the learning situations (e.g. teacher and peer support, task-interest, and task-importance). It was also found that within-person variability in state WTC predicted language learning performance, e.g. students whose state WTC increased as a function of perceived task interest tended to achieve higher grades at the end of the semester. This study calls for more attention to be directed at within-person variability in state WTC, and provides novel insights into how relationships between state WTC and its situational antecedents may be investigated within individuals. This work is of interest to researchers and practitioners who aim to enhance L2 learners’ state WTC and language learning performance by systematically shaping their situated learning experience.

ADHD symptoms across adolescence: the role of the family and school climate and the DRD4 and 5-HTTLPR genotype

We examined bidirectional relations between attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) symptoms and family and school climate, and the possible role of DRD4 and/or 5-HTTLPR genotypes herein. Three-wave longitudinal data of 1860 adolescents (mean ages 11, 13.5, and 16 years) from the general population and clinic-referred cohort of TRacking Adolescents’ Individual Lives Survey were used. Using a multigroup Random Intercept Cross-Lagged Panel Model, we tested between-person (i.e., stable trait levels) and within-person (i.e., causal processes) associations across ADHD symptoms, family and school climate, and the extent to which these depended on genotype. Findings indicated no influence of genotype. Results did show significant between-person differences (ADHD symptoms with family climate r = .38; and school climate r = .23, p values < .001), indicating that higher stable levels of ADHD symptoms were associated with a less favorable family and school climate. Regarding within-person causal processes, ADHD symptoms predicted a less favorable family climate in early adolescence (β = .16, p < .01), while ADHD symptoms predicted a more favorable family climate in the later phase of adolescence (β = − .11, p < .01), a finding which we explain by normative developmental changes during adolescence. Overall, this study showed that negative associations between ADHD symptoms and both family and school climate are largely explained by stable between-person differences. We recommend applying the Random Intercept Cross-Lagged Path Model to developmental data to tease stable associations and change processes apart.

Perfectionistic Cognitions: Stability, Variability, and Changes Over Time

ABSTRACTThe construct of perfectionistic cognitions is defined as a state-like construct resulting from a perfectionistic self-schema and activated by specific situational demands. Only a few studies have investigated whether and how perfectionistic cognitions change across different situations and whether they reflect stable between-person differences or also within-person variations over time. We conducted 2 studies to investigate the variability and stability of 3 dimensions of perfectionistic cognitions while situational demands changed (Study 1) and on a daily level during a highly demanding period of time (Study 2). The results of both studies revealed that stable between-person differences accounted for the largest proportion of variance in the dimensions of perfectionistic cognitions and that these differences were validly associated with between-person differences in affect. The frequency of perfectionistic cognitions increased during students' first semester at university, and these average within-person changes were different for the 3 dimensions of perfectionistic cognitions (Study 1). In addition, there were between-person differences in the within-person changes that were validly associated with concurrent changes in closely related constructs (unpleasant mood and tense arousal). Within-person variations in perfectionistic cognitions were also validly associated with variations in unpleasant mood and tense arousal from day to day (Study 2).

Mediators of Physical Activity Adherence: Results from an Action Control Intervention in Couples.

Behavior change interventions targeting self-regulation skills have generally shown promising effects. However, the psychological working mechanisms remain poorly understood. We examined theory-based mediators of a randomized controlled trial in couples targeting action control (i.e., continuously monitoring and evaluating an ongoing behavior). Self-reported action control was tested as the main mediating mechanism of physical activity adherence, and in addition self-efficacy and received social support from the partner. Overweight individuals (N = 121) and their heterosexual partners were randomly allocated to an intervention (information + action control text messages) or a control group (information only). Across a period of 28 days, participants reported on action control, self-efficacy, and received support in end-of-day diaries, and wore triaxial accelerometers to assess stable between-person differences in mediators and the outcome adherence to recommended daily activity levels (≥30 min of moderate activity in bouts of at least 10 min). On average, participants in the intervention group showed higher physical activity adherence levels and higher action control, self-efficacy, and received support compared to participants in the control group. Action control and received support emerged as mediating mechanisms, explaining 19.7 and 24.6% of the total intervention effect, respectively, in separate analyses, and 13.9 and 22.2% when analyzed simultaneously. No evidence emerged for self-efficacy as mediator. Action control and received support partly explain the effects of an action control intervention on physical activity adherence levels. Continued research is needed to better understand what drives intervention effects to guide innovative and effective health promotion. (controlled-trials.com ISRCTN15705531).

Purpose in life in ALS patient-caregiver dyads: A multilevel longitudinal analysis.

Eudaemonic positive psychological health (PPH), such as purpose in life (PIL), may be maintained more than hedonic PPH, such as quality of life (QOL), for patients with amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) and their caregivers across the disease course. Furthermore, patients' and caregivers' PPH may impact one another. The present study examined (a) PIL and QOL variance structures; (b) PIL and QOL trajectories from diagnosis, approaching death, with disease severity; and (c) between-dyad and within-dyad relationships for PIL and QOL in patients with ALS and their caregivers. PIL and QOL were assessed in patient-caregiver dyads (N = 110) up to 7 times over 18 months. Multilevel models revealed the proportion of variance attributed to stable between-person differences was higher for PIL (patients = 74%; caregivers = 76%) than QOL (patients = 60%; caregivers = 55%). PIL and QOL declined in relation to disease severity and time. For PIL, proximity to diagnosis and death moderated within-person change; decline was generally faster following diagnosis and approaching death. Longitudinal within-dyad relationships revealed that patients' fluctuations in PIL were mirrored in their caregiver and vice versa. PIL was more stable than QOL and was therefore a potential psychological resource for patients and caregivers. Critical periods-after diagnosis and approaching death-accompanied more rapid PIL decline. QOL was also impacted by proximity to critical periods. PIL within-dyad relationships may reflect a shared disease experience. Psychological intervention focused on enhancing purpose, particularly during critical periods, is a promising direction for future study. (PsycINFO Database Record

Parental monitoring and adolescent problem behaviors

This article aims to provide a critical analysis of how much we know about the effectiveness of parental monitoring in preventing adolescent delinquency. First, it describes the historical developments in parental monitoring research. Second, it explains why it is uncertain whether causal inferences can be drawn from contemporary research findings on the link of parenting and adolescent problem behaviors. Third, it is empirically demonstrated, using Random-Intercept Cross-Lagged Models, how distinguishing between-person and within-person associations may alter or strengthen conclusions regarding the links of parental monitoring and adolescent disclosure with adolescent delinquency. Previously detected correlations between parental monitoring and adolescent delinquency were not present at the within-family level. However, there were significant associations between within-person fluctuations in disclosure and delinquency. Together, these models provide stronger evidence for a potential causal link between disclosure and delinquency, but also suggest that previously detected linkages of parental monitoring and delinquency can be explained by stable between-person differences rather than causal processes operating within families.

A critique of the cross-lagged panel model.

The cross-lagged panel model (CLPM) is believed by many to overcome the problems associated with the use of cross-lagged correlations as a way to study causal influences in longitudinal panel data. The current article, however, shows that if stability of constructs is to some extent of a trait-like, time-invariant nature, the autoregressive relationships of the CLPM fail to adequately account for this. As a result, the lagged parameters that are obtained with the CLPM do not represent the actual within-person relationships over time, and this may lead to erroneous conclusions regarding the presence, predominance, and sign of causal influences. In this article we present an alternative model that separates the within-person process from stable between-person differences through the inclusion of random intercepts, and we discuss how this model is related to existing structural equation models that include cross-lagged relationships. We derive the analytical relationship between the cross-lagged parameters from the CLPM and the alternative model, and use simulations to demonstrate the spurious results that may arise when using the CLPM to analyze data that include stable, trait-like individual differences. We also present a modeling strategy to avoid this pitfall and illustrate this using an empirical data set. The implications for both existing and future cross-lagged panel research are discussed.