Mountain Spring Research Articles

Characterization of Nanoparticles in Drinking Water Using Field-Flow Fractionation Coupled with Multi-Angle Light Scattering and Inductively Coupled Plasma Mass Spectrometry

The current absence of well-established and standardized methods for characterizing submicrometer- and nano-sized particles in water samples presents a significant analytical challenge. With the increasing utilization of nanomaterials, the potential for unintended exposure escalates. The widespread and persistent pollution of water by micro- and nanoplastics globally is a concern that demands attention, not only to reduce pollution but also to develop methods for analyzing these pollutants. Additionally, the analysis of naturally occurring nano entities such as bubbles and colloidal matter poses challenges due to the lack of systematic and consistent methodologies. This study presents Asymmetric Flow Field-Flow Fractionation (AF4) separation coupled with a UV-VIS spectrometer followed by Multi-Angle Light Scattering (MALS) for detection and size characterization of nanometric entities. It is coupled with an Inductively Coupled Plasma Mass Spectrometer (ICP-MS) for elemental analysis. Water samples from different sources, such as untreated mountain spring water, groundwater, and bottled drinking water, were analyzed. The system was calibrated using pure particle standards of different metallic compositions. Our study demonstrates the capability of AF4-UV-MALS-ICP-MS to detect metals such as Al, Ba, Cu, and Zn in particles of around 200 nm diameter and Mg associated with very small particles between 1.5 and 10 nm in different drinking water samples.

Populations of the stygobiotic amphipod Palearcticarellus pusillus (Martynov, 1930) maintain genetic connectivity between the mountain springs and the deep bottom habitats of Lake Teletskoye (Altai Mountains, Russia)

The diversity of underground fauna is often associated with the presence of karst areas, which have extensive underground cavities and connecting channels. Non-karst areas, however, make up a larger portion of the planet’ surface, and our understanding of the distribution and dispersal abilities of underground fauna in these areas currently remains limited. During a recent study of the diversity of stygobiotic crustaceans in the mountain streams of the Kurai Mountain Range (Altai, Russia), a small-sized species of crangonyctid amphipod, Palearcticarellus pusillus (Crustacea, Amphipoda, Crangonyctidae) was found in high-altitude springs. This species has been previously known only from deep-water habitats in Lake Teletskoye, and molecular genetic analysis revealed that these amphipods maintain genetic connections between the springs and bottom lake habitats. We assume that individuals of this certainly stygobiotic species fall to the bottom of the lake as a result of leaching from tectonic faults connecting these habitats and are not permanent inhabitants of the lake bottom. This hypothesis also suggests that the very small body size of these animals may be related to the narrow crevices and pores of the tectonic faults, rather than neoteny, as it has been previously suggested. The estimated divergence time calculation has also revealed that P. pusillus obviously diverged from its sister species, Palearcticarellus mikhaili from valley springs in Kurai Steppe, ~5 Ma, at the beginning of the Pliocene, possibly due to the uplifting of the Kurai Mountain Range. Subsequent speciation occurred as a result of secondary tectonic activity and changes in groundwater flow, likely during the Pleistocene, approximately 2.7–0.7 Ma. Populations that were isolated for a long time continue to live near mountain springs in the study area.

Ensuring water security by reviving selected springs in Kangra region, Himachal Himalaya, India

ABSTRACT In the Himalaya, availability of fresh water is a need of mankind, but due to numerous unsustainable developments, hill peoplesare witnessing scarcity of potable water. Hence, there is an imperative need for continuous monitoring of different water sources of Himalaya along with sustainable groundwater management practices in the highlands. The present study is based on extensive field visits investigating natural and other anthropogenic influences on mountain springs, locally known as “boweris”. In the undertaken study, eleven boweris were identified in the Salol region of Kangra, out of which two were exclusively selected as representative boweris, for their detailed studies and revival during the year 2021–2022. The physio-chemical characteristics (pH, TDS, and Electrical Conductivity) of the collected water samples from the boweris and hand pumps were found to be within the acceptable limits as prescribed by Bureau of Indian standards. The correlation between the pairs of TDS-EC depicted a strong positive relationship in both post-monsoon and pre-monsoon seasons and was found to be 0.94 and 0.99, respectively. Results of the t-test show a statistically significant difference in the mean concentrations of TDS (p = 0.02) and EC (p = 0.01) compared to pH (p = 0.39) with no significant difference at 5% significance level during both the seasons in the studied area. It was evident from the field investigations that the recharge structures constructed are facilitating the local boweris in maintaining the water level during the dry seasons. In the Bhatlahru region, the water level in the boweris rose from 127 to 159 cm, whereas in the Salol region, a rise from 119 to 142 cm was observed. The obtained results support the effectiveness and suitability of the proposed structures for the sustainable water resource management in the lower Himalaya. However, regular and long-term hydrological monitoring of the existing groundwater sources of the Himalaya is required for a better understanding of groundwater dynamics.

Depleting spring sources in the Himalayas: Environmental drivers or just perception?

Study regionRangun Khola Watershed, Mahakali River Basin, Far Western Nepal. Study focusWe mapped and examined the status of 1122 springs in a typical mid-hill watershed in the Sudurpaschim Province of Nepal. Land use/cover trajectory analysis, quantification of climate change indices, analysis of spring flow trends and community perception were used to understand the changing dynamics of the mountain springs. New hydrological insights73% of the springs show a continuous declining trend in flow, with 2% already dried up. Land fragmentation between 1990 and 2018 due to the conversion to agricultural land causes landscape disturbances in the spring vicinities, affecting natural spring flows. Climate data assessment revealed a significant increase in temperature and frequency of localised high-intensity rainfall. Local climate and land use change are concurrent with drying spring sources and consistent with the local community's perceived manifestation of changes. Moreover, the growing population and haphazard rural road expansion are overexploiting and disturbing the spring resources. Drying spring sources are leading to implications on water availability and accessibility for livelihood activities, exacerbating gendered vulnerability to climate change. However, the government and local households are lagging in taking direct actions to mitigate the problem, increasing the likelihood of critical long-term consequences for the ecosystem and the local economy in Rangun Khola and similar watersheds in the Himalayas.

River–Spring Connectivity and Hydrogeochemical Processes in a Karst Water System of Northern China: A Case Study of Jinan Spring Catchment

Frequent surface water–groundwater interactions and prevalent anthropogenic inputs make karst water systems vulnerable to human disturbance. As a typical karst region in North China, the Jinan Spring Catchment has become increasingly threatened due to rapid population growth and urban expansion. In this study, the local river–spring interaction and its interference with the hydrogeochemical evolution of groundwater are evaluated based on water stable isotopes and hydrochemistry. Twenty-two karst groundwater, eleven Quaternary pore water, sixteen spring water, and thirty-two surface water samples were collected during low- and high-flow conditions over the course of a year. The isotopic signatures of four different water types display significant differences, reflecting the recharge–discharge relationship of the karst water system. Mountainous springs feature lighter isotopes, whereas urban springs have significantly heavier isotopes. The result of end-member mixing analysis shows that the surface–groundwater interaction varies spatially and temporally within the spring catchment. Urban springs receive considerable replenishment from the surface water, especially after rainy episodes (up to 50%), while mountainous springs show little hydraulic dependence on surface water leakage (4~6%). Local mineral dissolution (including calcite, dolomite, gypsum, and halite), CO2 dissolution/exsolution, and cation exchange are the main hydrogeochemical processes constraining water chemistry in the spring catchment. The deterioration of water quality can be attributed to anthropogenic influences involving the discharge of domestic effluents, agricultural activities, and irrigation return flow. The findings of this work can improve our understanding of the complex karst water system and serve as a reference for sustainable groundwater management in other karst areas of northern China.

Tall-forbs vegetation of the class Filipendulo-Artemisietea montanae Ohba 1973 from Kamchatka, Sakhalin and the Kuril Islands

We describe three new associations and two subassociations of the previously known association of the tall-forb vegetation class Filipendulo–Artemisietea montanae Ohba 1973 from Kamchatka, Sakhalin, and the Kuril Islands. The association Cirsio kamtschaticae–Reynoutrietum sachalinensis Ohba 1973 nom. mut. was originally described on Hokkaido, and we recognised the subassociations typicum and urticietosum platyphyllae within it. Besides Hokkaido, communities of this association are also present on Sakhalin and the Kuril Islands. The association Aconito umbrosi–Koenigietum weyrichii ass. nov. is described from vegetation data collected in the mountainous regions of northern Sakhalin (the East Sakhalin Mountains), where communities form in the narrow valleys of mountain springs and streams with long-melting snow deposits. Communities of the association Symplocarpo renifolii–Petasietum gigantei ass. nov. are known from the Krillion Peninsula (southwestern Sakhalin) and nearby Moneron Island. A specific floristic and physiognomic feature of these communities is the layer of Symplocarpus renifolius under the canopy of giant forb species. The association Veratro oxysepali–Filipenduletosum camtschaticae ass. nov. unites tall-forb communities of Kamchatka. In these tall-forb thickets, common species are found in more southern territories, such as Artemisia montana and Petasites japonicus subsp. giganteus, as well as other species of the East Asian floristic region, are not present.

Review of different types of mountain springs and mineral waters from Bulgaria based on their natural origin and health benefits

Mineral water has been renowned for its health benefits for over two millennia, with historical records indicating its use for rapid recovery and wound healing, especially among soldiers engaged in military activities. Over time, baths with mineral water became popular for therapeutic purposes. In the 19th century, analyses revealed that regions with mountains boasted many long-lived individuals and centenarians, with factors such as pure mountain water, fresh air, and quality food potentially contributing to longevity. This publication comprehen­sively reviews selected natural waters, including mineral and mountain waters. The author conducted extensive studies in Bulgaria from 2012 to 2019 involving 477 long-lived individuals and their brothers and sisters living in mountain and field areas. The investigation assessed their heredity, body weight, health, psychological status, tobacco smoking, phy­sical activity, food, and water consumption. Emphasizing the importance of medical prevention and care, the study sheds light on essential aspects of longevity today. One significant conclusion drawn from this research is the crucial role of balancing certain minerals in both water and food for human health and longevity. These minerals include Calcium (Ca2+), Magnesium (Mg2+), Sodium (Na+), Potassium (K+), Zinc (Zn2+), and Manganese (Mn2+). Furthermore, a detailed analysis of the physicochemical properties of water in longevity zones reveals lower calcium ions (Ca2+) levels compared to other regions, ranging from 6 to 20 mg.L-1. Notably, regions like Nova Scotia, Canada, known for supercentenarians for over 110 years, have water with such calcium levels. Similarly, longevity is observed in areas of Greece characterized by Mediterranean cuisine and mountain water. Water's physicochemical composition is significantly influenced by its natural filtration through rocks, which imbues it with beneficial minerals.

Effect of the type of brewing water on the sensory and physicochemical properties of light-scented and strong-scented Tieguanyin oolong teas

Variations in the quality of brewing water profoundly impact tea flavor. This study systematically investigated the effects of four common water sources, including pure water (PW), mountain spring water (MSW), mineral water (MW) and natural water (NW) on the flavor of Tieguanyin tea infusion. Brewing with MW resulted in a flat taste and turbid aroma, mainly due to the low leaching of tea flavor components and complex interactions with mineral ions (mainly Ca2+, Mg2+). Tea infusions brewed with NW exhibited the highest relative contents of total volatile compounds, while those brewed with PW had the lowest. NW and MSW, with moderate mineralization, were conducive to improving the aroma quality of tea infusion and were more suitable for brewing both aroma types of Tieguanyin. These findings offer valuable insights into the effect of brewing water on the sensory and physicochemical properties of oolong teas.

Identifying potential recharge areas of mountain springs through hydrogeological mapping

Springs are the primary source of water for the people inhabiting in the hills and mountain regions of Nepal. Climate variability, climate change, land use change and management factors together with various human activities including haphazard infrastructure development like urbanization and road construction over the recharge area are responsible for drying up of springs in the hills and mountains, especially in the mid-hill region of Nepal. This study attempts to identify the potential recharge zones of the springs within the four catchments viz. Banlekh and Shikharpur of Baitadi and Doti districts, respectively in far-western Nepal, and the Khaste and Begnas of Kaski district in western Nepal through hydrogeological mapping. Hydrogeological Conceptual Model was adopted while identifying the potential recharge areas. We measured the orientation of the rock outcrops, their types, and discontinuities found around the possible recharge areas. We prepared a conceptual hydro-geological layout of the spring-sheds based on the collected data, and delineated the potential recharge areas. We found the potential recharge zone of the Banlekh Springs at hill slopes and bedding plane within the catchment. However, the recharge zone of the Shikharpur Springs was found on the top and beyond the catchment due to the presence of a number of sinkholes. Moreover, the recharge zone of the Thulopadhero Spring was found to be controlled by the orientation of the rocks and fractures found in the unconsolidated sediments within the catchment and beyond the ridge of the escarpment. The rock orientation within the Falekund-Saunepani-Lapsibot Catchment suggests that the potential recharge zone of the springs consists of unconsolidated sediments. The identified potential recharge areas, the observed rainfall, and the discharge data on springs indicated that the recharge areas were more influenced by the local geology.

Hydro-heritage for healing? Examining the gendered experience of water in post-conflict Swat, Pakistan

Water has been formulated as a resource or a hazard within water resources geography. We propose that reframing of water as hydro-heritage opens up richer analytical possibilities for examining the pluriverses and multiple ontologies that animate gendered experience of water. We are concerned with how hydro-heritage has or could have contributed to healing in the post-conflict Swat valley of Pakistan. We highlight how the Taliban insurgency and the reconstruction following its military defeat displaced people's worlds of meaning in Swat. We find that the pre-conflict mountain springs were a site for an enchanted affective encounter between humans and non-humans, where a multifaceted gendered experience of water was enacted. The developmental imaginaries of the Pakistan state in the post-conflict reconstruction phase and the accompanying social changes deracinated water and springs from their pluriversal moorings towards ‘modern water’ with damaging material and emotional consequences for the people of Swat. This was particularly pronounced in terms of gendered access to water, health and mobility. We suggest that water as hydro-heritage has the potential to heal, provided people's worlds of meaning and experience of water are recentred in developmental imaginaries.

Great Basin Survivance (USA): Challenges and Windfalls of the Neoglaciation / Late Holocene Dry Period (3100–1800 cal BP)

AbstractThe Late Holocene Dry Period (LHDP) was a one-plus millennial megadrought (3100–1800 cal BP) that delivered challenges and windfalls to Indigenous communities of the central Great Basin (United States). New pollen and sedimentation rate studies, combined with existing tree-ring data, submerged stump ages, and lake-level evidence, demonstrate that the LHDP was the driest Great Basin climate within the last 6,000 years—more extreme than the well-known Medieval Climatic Anomaly. New evidence reported here documents that most Great Basin archaeological sites south of 40° N latitude were abandoned during the long dry phase of the LHDP (3100–2200 cal BP), sometimes reoccupied during a wet interval (2200–2000 cal BP), and abandoned again during the most extreme drought (2000–1800 cal BP). Even in the face of epic drought, this is a story of remarkable survivance by some people who adjusted to their drought-stricken landscape where they had lived for millennia. Some moved on, but other resilient foragers refused to abandon their homeland, taking advantage of glacier-fed mountain springs with cooler alpine temperatures and greater moisture retention at high altitude, a result of early Neoglaciation conditions across many Great Basin ranges, despite epic drought conditions in the lowlands.

Determination of Metals by Portable Millisecond Pulsed Solution Cathode Glow Discharge (SCGD) Atomic Emission Spectroscopy (AES)

In order to determine metal ions in aqueous solution, a millisecond pulsed solution cathode glow discharge (SCGD) source coupled with a portable spectrometer was developed for atomic emission spectrometry (AES). The millisecond pulsed SCGD source was operated with two high-voltage DC power supplies and a high-voltage pulse switch, specifically boosting the analyte excitation and sustain the glow discharge. The method to excite the plasma discharge contrasts with traditional approaches that employ a single power source. The influence of operating parameters, including pulsed voltage, pulsed frequency, duty ratio, and sample flow rate, were optimized to construct a system having good stability and improved excitation of metal ions. The optimum detection limits for Na, K, Li, Mg, Ag, Cs, Rb, and Sr were 0.17, 0.32, 0.38, 0.50, 2.65, 1.30, 0.22, and 74.02 µg·L−1, respectively. Furthermore, mountain spring, Yangtze River, and reservoir water were spiked with Ag, Rb, and Cs; the recoveries ranged from 105% to 106%, 106% to 107%, and 107% to 108% indicating that the developed system has favorable analytical performance.

Low antimicrobial resistance in Escherichia coli isolates from two large Austrian alpine karstic spring catchments

The increasing occurrence of antibiotic resistant bacteria poses a threat to global public health. Clinically relevant resistances also spread through the environment. Aquatic ecosystems in particular represent important dispersal pathways. In the past, pristine water resources have not been a study focus, although ingestion of resistant bacteria through water consumption constitutes a potentially important transmission route. This study assessed antibiotic resistances in Escherichia coli populations in two large well-protected and well-managed Austrian karstic spring catchments representing essential groundwater resources for water supply. E. coli were detected seasonally only during the summer period. By screening a representative number of 551 E. coli isolates from 13 sites in two catchments, it could be shown that the prevalence of antibiotic resistance in this study area is low. 3.4 % of the isolates showed resistances to one or two antibiotic classes, 0.5 % were resistant to three antibiotic classes. No resistances to critical and last-line antibiotics were detected. By integrating fecal pollution assessment and microbial source tracking, we could infer that ruminants were the main hosts for antibiotic resistant bacteria in the studied catchment areas. A comparison with other studies on antibiotic resistances in karstic or mountainous springs highlighted the low contamination status of the model catchments studied here, most likely due to the high protection and careful management while other, less pristine catchments showed much higher antibiotic resistances. We demonstrate that studying easily accessible karstic springs allows a holistic view on large catchments concerning the extent and origin of fecal pollution as well as antibiotic resistance. This representative monitoring approach is also in line with the proposed update of the EU Groundwater Directive (GWD).

Progress on research and mitigation of wind-blown sand risk in Dunhuang Singing Sand Mountain and Crescent Spring Scenic area, China

The Singing Sand Mountain and Crescent Spring Scenic Spot in Dunhuang, Northwest China is a world-renowned desert attraction that is also an integral component of the Dunhuang UNESCO Global Geopark. This scenic area underwent a 30-year transformation, i.e., from a severe sand risk with spring water threatened by sand burial due to dune deformation, to restoration of the original sand flow field and mitigation of the sand burial problem. The current paper summarizes the research on the intensive monitoring of the dynamic change of star dunes near the spring, observation of wind and sand flow movement, and then restoring the harmonic vibration of the sand particles (singing sand) that were previously silenced. The existing and prospective impacts of anthropogenic and natural forces on the deformation of the sand dunes are investigated by integrated methods, guiding the implementation of mitigating measures with significant ameliorative effects. Contrast to common sand control practices that aim to reduce wind speed and stop blown sands, our research highlights the importance of maintaining the natural wind flow field in stabilizing surrounding dunes. These mitigation measures consist of removing excessive vegetation and newly constructed buildings to recover the original wind flow field and sand transport activity. Such research and mitigation efforts ensure the scientific protection and restoration of the special desert landform, and contribute to the mutual enhancement of the conservation and exploitation of this desert scenic spot and similar sites.

Antibiotic resistome in groundwater and its association with mountain springs and river

The distribution of antibiotic resistance genes (ARGs) in water sources potentially threatens drinking water safety. However, the sources of antibiotic resistome in groundwater are still under-investigated. Here, we evaluated the profiles of antibiotic resistome in peri-urban groundwater and its associated water sources (river and mountain spring) to characterize the antibiotic resistome from natural water sources on groundwater resistome. A total of 261 antibiotic resistome were detected in groundwater, mountain spring, and river samples. The relative abundances of ARGs and mobile genetic elements (MGEs) were significantly higher in the river samples than in spring water and groundwater samples. The resistome profiles were similar between groundwater and spring water but differed from the river samples. According to source tracking results, the groundwater resistome was likely to be derived from springs (28.0%−50.0%) and rivers (28.6%−48.6%), which share the same trend for the source tracking of bacterial communities. Bacterial α-diversity, bacterial β-diversity, and MGEs directly or indirectly affected the ARGs in groundwater samples. Although the abundance of groundwater resistome was not elevated by river and spring water, groundwater resistomes were diverse and may be derived from both river and spring water. We highlight the importance of groundwater resistome and its association with potential water sources, providing a better understanding and basis for the effective control of the ARG proliferation and dissemination in groundwater from exogenous water bodies in the future.

Study on Measurement Method of β Radioactivity in Environmental Water by Liquid Scintillation Spectrometers

Compared with other methods for measuring radioactivity in water, liquid scintillation measurement has the outstanding advantages of fast sample pretreatment, simple measurement method and high detection efficiency. Based on liquid scintillation spectrometer (SIM-MAX LSA3000B), 14C and 90Sr-90Y are selected as typical nuclides to study the change of TDCR quenching correction curve under different activity concentrations, and the basic method for measuring radioactive water samples with different activity concentrations is proposed, which is applied to the measurement of lake water, mountain spring water, tap water, mineral water and rainwater. The measurement results show that the total time of this method is less than 60 minutes, and the measurement error is less than 20%, which is obviously superior to the existing water sample radioactivity measurement method under nuclear emergency conditions.

Sustainable Water Treatment with Induced Bank Filtration

This study demonstrates that an induced bank filter (IBF) system can treat raw water polluted with Escherichia coli (E. coli) bacteria. Similar to riverbank filtration (RBF), induced or reversed bank filtration relies on natural processes to clean water, including filtration through layers of allochthone alluvial sediments and a bioactive layer that forms on top of the filter after a ripening period. At the study site, located in Southwestern India, villagers rely on a mountain spring for their water supply. Although of generally high quality, the spring water contains E. coli bacteria (up to ~2000 MPN/100 mL). Raw water diverted from this spring was gravity-fed into the IBF system, which consisted of a (1) flow regulator, (2) pre-filter and (3) the actual IBF filter. Designed and constructed based on pilot testing of prototype filters, a full-scale filter (5 m by 7 m by 2 m) was built and its performance and maintenance requirements were studied during both the monsoon season and the dry season. The data show that the IBF significantly improved the water quality. Turbidity and E. coli concentrations were reduced to or below the detection limit (approximately 2.5 log unit reduction). During the peak of the monsoon season (August), E. coli was present in the IBF effluent after a storm destroyed the cover of the IBF tank. The IBF construction and maintenance costs were documented. Extrapolated over a 10-year period, the cost of IBF water was 3 and 10 times lower than reverse osmosis or water supplied by truck, respectively. This study demonstrates that IBF can be part of an affordable water supply system for rural villages in mountainous terrain where conventional RBF systems cannot be installed or where other water treatment technologies are out of financial reach.

The Chironomidae (Diptera) diversity in the Balkan Peninsula spring systems and other small water bodies

Chironomidae are known to occur in small, even astatic water bodies like seepages, rheocrens, pools and wells. The Balkan Peninsula reveals a high variability of small water bodies, with springs (rheocrens, limnocrens and helocrens) being the most widely distributed. In this review, we give a brief presentation of the Chironomidae communities in valley and mountain small water bodies, and in Lake Skadar (Shkodra) spring system. River valleys offer a large variety of small freshwater habitats. Their presence strongly increases of midge (Chironomidae) diversity, providing a habitat for the cold-stenotherms and semiterrestrial taxa that do not occur in rivers and lakes. The species richness in small water bodies strongly depends on their hydrological conditions (i.e. perennial vs. astatic water bodies), size and microhabitat complexity. Mountain spring communities depend on precipitation and exhibit altitudinal zonation. The higher mountain zones (1400–1500 m a.s.l.) have the most diverse midge assemblages, due to their stable perennial hydrological conditions. Human activity may alter species composition in riparian springs, favouring taxa that are not typical to the local fauna. By studying these small aquatic habitats, the significance of their Chironomidae fauna is being recognised, thereby filling a gap in the knowledge of freshwater insects biodiversity in the Balkan region.

The Orchids of Wetland Vegetation in the Central Balkans

Wetland ecosystems are important habitats for the growth and survival of numerous terrestrial orchids in Europe. This study reviews the current knowledge on the orchids of wetland vegetation in the Central Balkans. The orchid flora was analyzed from taxonomic, phytogeographical, ecological and conservation aspects. The most important taxa include the two Balkan endemics (Dactylorhiza cordigera subsp. bosniaca and D. kalopissi subsp. macedonica) and the three subendemics of the Balkans and the Carpathians (Dactylorhiza cordigera subsp. cordigera, D. maculata subsp. transsilvanica and Gymnadenia frivaldii), as well as a considerable number of Central European, Eurasian and boreal orchid representatives. Several orchid taxa occurring in the wet meadows and fens of the Central Balkans have a southern limit of their distribution in this part of Europe, suggesting that wetlands are important refuges for them. In total, 33 orchid taxa were recorded in plant communities from five classes, 10 orders and 17 alliances. Most orchid taxa grow in the following wetland vegetation types: wet meadows (class Molinio-Arrhenatheretea, order Molinietalia caeruleae, alliances Molinion caeruleae, Deschampsion cespitosae and Calthion palustris); fens (class Scheuchzerio palustris-Caricetea fuscae, order Caricetalia fuscae, alliance Caricion fuscae); tall-herb vegetation along mountain streams and springs (class Mulgedio-Aconitetea); marshes and herb-land vegetation of freshwater or brackish water bodies (class Phragmito-Magnocaricetea). This study highlights the importance of serpentine and silicate wetland vegetation types as important habitats for the survival of terrestrial orchids. In addition, detailed taxonomic, ecological and chorological studies of the wetland orchids of the Central Balkans need to be carried out in order to establish a successful plan for their conservation.

Analysis of The Influence of Nutritional Status Variables and Environmental Sanitation on The Event of Diarrhous to Children

Introduction: Diarrhea in 2019 became the second leading cause of death in children under five. The causes of diarrhoea include infection, malabsorption, and food and are influenced by several factors such as behavioural, nutritional, environmental, and socioeconomic factors. This study aimed to analyze the effect of variables on nutritional status and environmental sanitation on the incidence of diarrhoea in children under five in the South Lampung Regency. Method: This study is survey research with a cross-sectional design and uses binary logistic regression analysis. The samples taken were 380 toddlers aged 6-59 months. Result: 10 of the 21 predictor variables had a significant effect on the 5% significant level of the incidence of diarrhoea, where there were nine predictor variables, including poor/poor nutritional status, history of exclusive breastfeeding, clean water sources from BOR wells, clean water sources from PDAM. mountain spring drinking water sources, latrine facilities, septic tank facilities, managed waste management, and the floor of a ceramic house can reduce the incidence of diarrhea with odds ratio and [p=] values of 0.06[0.000], 0.33[0.017], 0.01[0.0000], 0.02[0.000], 0.02[0.004], 0.04[0.000], 0.01[0.025], 0.02[0.001], and 0.10[0.000]. Toddlers living in noncoastal areas have a 1.08 times higher chance of experiencing diarrhoea than coastal areas. In contrast, one variable, namely the age of toddlers, can increase the susceptibility to diarrhoea in toddlers with the odds ratio and [p=] values of 1.04 [0.007, respectively. Conclusion: This study shows that the influence of nutritional status variables and environmental sanitation has a great possibility to reduce the incidence of diarrhoea in children under five, namely in the group of nutritional status variables, including poor/poor nutritional status, age of toddlers, and history of exclusive breastfeeding.