Spring Water Quality Research Articles

Springing for Safe Water: Drinking Water Quality and Source Selection in Central Appalachian Communities

Issues surrounding water infrastructure, access, and quality are well documented in the Central Appalachian region of the United States. Even in cases where residents have in-home piped point-of-use (POU) water, some rely on alternative drinking water sources for daily needs—including water collection from roadside springs. This effort aims to better understand and document spring usage in this region by identifying the factors that influence drinking water source selection and comparing household and spring water quality to Safe Drinking Water Act (SDWA) health-based and aesthetic contaminant recommendations. Households were recruited from communities surrounding known springs in three states (Kentucky, Virginia, and West Virginia). First- and second-draw, in-home POU tap water samples were collected from participating households and compared to samples collected from local springs on the same day. Samples were analyzed for fecal indicator bacteria and inorganic ions. Study participants completed surveys to document perceptions of household drinking water and typical usage. The majority of survey participants (82.6%) did not trust their home tap water due to aesthetic issues. Water quality results suggested that fecal indicator bacteria were more common in spring water, while several metallic ions were recovered in higher concentrations from household samples. These observations highlight that health risks and perceptions may be different between sources.

Spring water quality and discharge assessment in the Basantar watershed of Jammu Himalaya using geographic information system (GIS) and water quality Index(WQI)

The demand for fresh spring water recently increased due to intensive domestic, industrial irrigation practices which typically caused depletion of water resources and deterioration of water quality. The spring water quality was analyzed for its major hydrochemistry and hydrochemical evolution of the spring water in the study area. A total of 60 spring water samples were collected from the three kinds of terrain (mountainous, hilly and plain) and analyzed for pH, electrical conductivity (EC), total dissolved solids (TDS), total hardness (TH), calcium (Ca2+), magnesium (Mg2+), sodium (Na+), potassium (K+), bicarbonate (HCO3−), sulphate (SO42−), chloride (Cl−), nitrate (NO3−), and fluoride (F−). The water quality of drinking purposes was plotted in the Piper trilinear diagram which reveals that spring hydrochemistry is dominated by the alkaline earth and weak acids. Gibbs diagram reveals that the spring water chemistry is primarily controlled by rock-water interaction in the investigated region. The water quality index (WQI), 45% of samples fall in the excellent category, 50% of spring samples fall in good categories for drinking purposes. The pH and TDS are within the permissible limit ranges from 7 to 8.4 and 123to 793 respectively. Based on chemical analysis of the various parameters such as non-carbonate hardness, sodium percentage sodium absorption ratio, residual sodium carbonate were calculated to define the quality of spring water for irrigation purposes. The discharge of spring water was also calculated during the pre-monsoon season and found that 70% of samples have discharge more than 20 L per second (Lps).

Determination of Water Quality in Springs of Ekaterinburg and Sverdlovsk Oblast

This article reported a study of water quality in 31 springs of the city of Ekaterinburg and the Sverdlovsk Oblast. We determined that water in only 7 springs (22%) fully met the requirements of sanitary norms from the point of view of content of chemical and radioactive pollutants. In 17 cases, water did not meet the requirements of the norms for the chemical factor, in 4 cases – for the radiation factor, and in 3 cases – for both the chemical and radiation factors. Among the natural radionuclides, only 222Rn showed levels higher than intervention level (60 Bq/L); the maximum activity concentration of radon was found to be 161 Bq / l (Pavlovsky spring). At the same time, activity concentrations of uranium and thorium did not exceed the level of intervention. A detailed analysis of the content of natural radionuclides showed the absence of correlations between the activity concentrations of radon, uranium and thorium in spring waters. Inconsistency of spring waters with sanitary standards for chemical factors in the vast majority of cases was associated with excess MPC for iron. Also, in a number of samples, an excess of the MPC for manganese and barium was found, while in the spring Europe-Asia (Yekaterinburg) an almost 9-fold excess of the MPC for barium was found.

Relationship between Spring Water Quality and Land Use Type in a Small Area

Relationship between Spring Water Quality and Land Use Type in a Small Area

SULFUR, METAL(LOID)S, RADIOACTIVITY, AND CYTOTOXICITY IN ABANDONED KARSTIC RAŠA COAL-MINE DISCHARGES (THE NORTH ADRIATIC SEA)

Rasa coal, mined on the Istrian Peninsula (NW Croatia) for nearly 400 years up to 1999, is notable for having superhigh organic sulfur, and high levels of selenium, uranium, vanadium, and molybdenum. Selenium is the poison responsible for the widespread loss of cattle and sheep. It is essential to human health in trace amounts, but higher concentrations can be harmful. An estimated 4.4Mt. of coal remains underground within marine carbonate rocks. The study area belongs to the coastal karst of the Adriatic Sea. Several abandoned coal-mine discharges (CMDs) were released into local streams and the Rasa Bay for decades. Therefore, the water quality of a natural karst spring (Fonte Gaja), the Rasa Bay seawater, municipal wastewater, and the Rasa CMDs were investigated, focusing on sulfur, selected metal(loid)s (major, minor, and trace), radioactivity, and cytotoxicity. The Fonte Gaja spring water, unrelated to the Rasa CMD, served as a reference. Its values of Se, U, V, and Mo (µg/L) were as follows: 1.09, 0.75, 1.37, and 2.04, respectively. However, the respective levels (µg/L) were increased in the rest of the water samples as follows: 10.9, 10.8, 4.60, and 33.1. Water sulfate levels were low though. Total beta activities of the CMDs and Rasa Bay water were 235 and 1320 Bq/m3, respectively, below the guideline level of 2000 Bq/m3. The cytotoxicity of water samples on the RTG-2 fish cells was not statistically significant. The large volumes of water involved mean the transport of rather large amounts of Se and U, and their deposition in the Adriatic Sea. Due to the complexity of the karst hydrogeology, knowledge of Se and U circulation patterns is highly needed.

Determination of the quality of spring water from the Saint Bernard district of Chiguata for human consumption

Evaluamos la calidad del agua de manantial del fundo San Bernardo de Chiguata para determinar si podria ser utilizada para consumo humano. Se realizaron ocho muestreos, durante las cuatro estaciones del ano. La toma de muestra fue puntual, segun el protocolo de monitoreo de los recursos hidricos de la Autoridad Nacional del Agua- DGCRH utilizando metodos de ensayos normalizado por la EPA. Se determinaron parametros fisicos, quimicos, aniones y cationes, elementos ecotoxicos y parametros microbiologicos (coliformes totales y fecales). Los resultados fueron comparados con el DSN°031-2010 y la NTP 214.024-1988 (revisada y actualizada Resolucion Directoral N° 031-2017-INACAL/ DN (2017-09-05). Se concluyo que la dureza total, solidos disueltos y la conductividad electrica, los iones As3+, F- , Cl- y el boro; presentan valores que exceden a lo indicado en la norma. Segun Rigola esta agua subterranea es muy dura, pertenece a una clase de tipo mineral por el grado de mineralizacion segun el residuo seco a 180 °C.

Assessment of spring water quality and associated health risks in a high-level natural radiation area, North Iran.

In this study, the spring water quality of a high natural background radiation region in North Iran was evaluated by measuring hydrochemical characteristics and concentration of potentially toxic elements (PTEs) and activity concentration of radioactive elements. The carcinogenicity potential from exposure to PTEs and radioactive elements was also investigated using probabilistic approach. The hydrochemical properties of water samples revealed that there were two different water types in the study area: (1) non-thermal Ca-HCO3 type and (2) thermal Na-Cl type. The concentrations of Al, Cd, Cr, Cu, Pb, Mo, Ni, Sb, Zn, and 40K were within the recommended water quality standard set by the World Health Organization (WHO). Elevated concentrations of As, Mn, Hg, 226Ra, and 232Th occur in Na-Cl water type while elevated concentrations of Fe occur in Ca-HCO3 water type. Also, health complications of dermal contact (via balneology or bathing) are within the safe limits. The major concern regarding the contaminated springs is the possibility of soil and groundwater contamination through uncontrolled runoff and spa effluents. Preventing the spread of toxic constituents in the study area via high-risk spring water requires periodic monitoring, and applying control measures where necessary.

Reducing Environmental Degradation in Kampung Nambo by Cutting the Critical Contamination Points

Kampung Nambo is one of the densest kampung in South Tangerang, Banten Province, Indonesia. This kampung has direct boundary to the state-owned Landfill, the Cipeucang Landfill. Apart of the mountainous waste panoramas and the continuous odours that can be seen and smelled all day from the kampung, this kampung has beautiful landscape scenery and many potential to develop further towards a livable kampung. The inhabitants in Kampung Nambo are witnessing environmental degradations happened in their area, including on its spring water quality that serve as one of the clean water sources for the community. This paper describes about community engagement program activities in one area in Kampung Nambo especially in region 03/04. The program aims to facilitate the community in finding ways to decrease the environmental degradation. One of the interventions was done trough sanitation aspect. The program found 7-8% of the community still apply open access from their toilets to the river. It gets the area and river even more polluted. This paper described about the action of reducing environmental degradation due to above conditions by cutting the critical contamination points. As further intervention, a new location for wastewater treatment plant was identified.

Spring water quality assessment using water quality index in villages of Barwari Bala, Duhok, Kurdistan Region, Iraq

Periodic quality assessment of drinking water sources is necessary to guarantee the quality and security of water supply to people. Accordingly, this study assessed the drinking water quality of spring water of some villages located in Barwari Bala region of Duhok Governorate, Kurdistan region, Iraq, using the water quality index (WQI). To realize this objective, 120 spring water samples were collected from ten villages during the dry and wet seasons in 2018 and were analyzed for major physicochemical characteristics, including: calcium (Ca2+), magnesium (Mg2+), sodium (Na+), potassium (K+), chloride (Cl−), sulfate (SO42−), nitrate (NO3−), pH, total dissolved solids (TDS), turbidity, total hardness (TH) and total alkalinity (TA). The results for pH, turbidity, sodium, potassium, chloride, sulfate and nitrate showed that the water samples at all the sampled springs were suitable for drinking and within permissible limits based on given standards. However, TDS, TA, calcium and magnesium exceeded the permissible limits at some sites. It was also observed that, except for SO42−, at almost all the sites, the majority of parameters were significantly greater during the wet season compared to the dry season. With reference to all the parameters, the WQI values ranged from 10.76 to 18.13 during the dry season and from 17.10 to 20.45 during the wet season, indicating that all water samples are classified as having “excellent” water quality for drinking purposes. The calculation of WQI based on specific parameters, where values were close to or exceeded the maximum acceptable limits, showed that the water quality status of all water samples was “good” quality, except for sites S6 and S8, which were classified as “poor” quality and are not considered suitable for drinking purposes without treatment. Water from almost all the sampled spring sites can be considered as suitable for drinking purposes, although some parameters exceed permissible limits. Simple filtration treatment of the sampled spring water before use is desirable for ensuring good quality and security of the water supply to people of these areas.

Toxic and mutagenic activity of the spring waters of Almaty

Spring waters, as natural discharges of groundwater to the surface, are an essential component of thenatural environment. Spring water is considered by nature to be exceptionally pure, transparent, tasty,and balanced in its chemical composition, which makes it attractive to humans. However, the quality ofspring water in urban areas has deteriorated significantly due to the high risk of chemical and bacterialcontaminants entering groundwater. Therefore, studies were carried out of spring waters, actively consumed by the population of Almaty, for toxic and mutagenic activity. Spring 1 is located near the riverProhodnaya, bus stop number 28; spring 2 – on the road to the Big Almaty Lake, in front of the bridgeover the river Ulken Almaty; spring 3 – near the river Batareika on the road to Kok-Zhailau; spring 4 –at the Prosveshchenets stop on the road to Medeu. The excess of MPC for lead in the water of springs1, 3, and 4 has been established. Following the established MPC for heavy metals, water from spring 2belongs to quality class 1 and is suitable for all types of water use; water from springs 1, 3 and 4 belongsto quality class 2. The waters of this water use’ class are suitable for all categories of water use, except fordomestic. A bioluminescent test revealed high toxicity of spring waters 1-3, which significantly reducedthe bioluminescent response of RecA and ColD biosensors (p spring 1> spring 2> spring 4.Key words: spring water, toxicity, mutagenicity, biosensor strains, heavy metals.

Contaminant sources and processes affecting spring water quality in a typical karst basin (Hongjiadu Basin, SW China): insights provided by hydrochemical and isotopic data.

Springs are an important source of drinking water supply in mountainous karst areas of SW China. However, the quality of many spring waters has deteriorated greatly in recent years, which leads to a significant problem of drinking water scarcity. In this study, hydrochemistry and stable sulfur and oxygen isotopic compositions of SO42- (δ34S and δ18OSO4) of 38 representative samples of waters (incl. spring water, surface water, rainwater, and sewage) from the Hongjiadu Basin, Guizhou province, SW China, were investigated in order to identify the sources of contaminates in spring waters and trace the processes affecting the karst groundwater quality. Approximately 28% of the total investigated springs has been suffered from serious contamination and the concentrations of NO3-, SO42-, and total iron (TFe) in many spring waters have exceeded the standards for drinking water. The springs that have NO3- concentrations of > 30 mg/L are concentrated in residential and agricultural areas, suggesting that NO3- in spring water are mainly derived from chemical fertilizers, manure, and sewage. δ34S and δ18OSO4 data indicate that SO42- in spring water mainly originates from sulfide oxidation, acid rain, and sewage. Furthermore, the high δ34S and δ18OSO4 values of SO42- in some spring waters may be related to the occurrence of bacterial sulfate reduction. Some springs that are discharged from abandoned coal mines have SO42- concentrations of > 250 mg/L, demonstrating that mining activities have accelerated the deterioration of spring water quality. Also, springs with TFe concentrations of > 0.3 mg/L are discharged from coal-bearing strata, revealing that iron in spring waters is mainly derived from the oxidation of pyrite. Our results show that the karst spring waters are highly vulnerable to anthropogenic contaminations and human activities, such as agricultural fertilizing and sewage and waste disposal as well as mining activities, which exert a great impact on the quality of groundwater in karst areas.

Distribution and classification of springs in Bansbari area of Melamchi Municipality, Sindhupalchowk, Nepal

Springs are the primary source of drinking water and irrigation in hills and mountains in Nepal. In recent years, the life sustaining springs are reported to be drying and degrading in quality. However, there is a lack of information and knowledge in various aspects of springs in Nepal. This has limited the scope for groundwater development and management in hills and mountains. The present study focuses on identifying, surveying and keeping records of spring sources in the Bansbari area of Melamchi Municipality, Sindhupalchowk, Nepal, and intends to understand the distribution of springs in the area. Assessment of spring water quality and classification of springs is other major component of this study. Out of forty-one springs observed in the area, 85% are perennial and others are seasonal in nature. It is found that majority of the springs are located in the middle altitude ranging from 1000 to 1350m above mean sea level and in moderate slope varying from 10° to 35°. In terms of land use, 37% are located in forest followed by 34%in bushes and 29% in agricultural land. In terms of stream density, 61% of springs are located in places with low stream density. In terms of type of deposit, 51% are located in colluviums, followed by 25% in rock and 24% in residual soil. The springs in the study area are classified as depression spring and fracture spring. They are mostly non-thermal with weakly mineralized water ranging from soft to hard. The general order of dominance of major cations in the sampled springs is Ca2+>Mg2+>Na+>K+ and major anions is HCO3-> Cl->SO42-. Springs of magnitude fifth and less are observed in the study area with significant decrease of discharge in the dry season. Regular monitoring of spring discharges is recommended to quantify the groundwater in the area.

Tracing and quantifying contributions of end members to karst water at a coalfield in southwest China

Karst water, which provides 25% of the world's drinking water, is especially vulnerable to anthropogenic contamination. Such is the case in southwestern China with trace element pollution in important karst aquifers. Approximately 20% of the total study area consisted of abandoned mine tailings with elevated concentrations of Fe, S, Mn, As, Cu, and Cr. Acid mine drainage (AMD) water originating from pyrite oxidation of the tailings was characterized by low pH and high concentrations of Fe, SO42−, and As. Concentrations of Fe, Mn, Al, SO42−, As, Cd, and Pb in spring water in wet and dry seasons were greater than WHO and USEPA drinking water guidelines. Based on the results of mineral characterizations, hydrogeochemistry, and isotopic compositions (δ34SSO4, δ18OSO4, and δ18OH2O), the chemistry of AMD water was primarily controlled by pyrite oxidation, river water by atmospheric precipitation, and spring water by carbonate rock dissolution and mixing with river and AMD waters. A three-end-member mixing model identified the contributions of these different end members to spring water quality. Although AMD water was characterized by the lowest mixing percentages during the wet (14.1%) and dry (26.9%) seasons, it played a very important role in degrading spring water quality. Based on these findings, an investigation strategy was developed for illuminating seasonal water quality and potential remediation methods corresponding to the contaminants in the spring water are also proposed to manage this seriously polluted karst system. Results could benefit remediation planning for these distinctively complex and vulnerable systems in other regions of the world.

A Normal Cloud Model-Based Method for Water Quality Assessment of Springs and Its Application in Jinan

Springs are a source of drinking water and a famous tourist attraction in Jinan, China. In this paper, a multi-index evaluation method was proposed based on a normal cloud model. This model is new graphic model, which could synthetically picture the randomness and fuzziness of concepts. Ten parameters were selected, and water quality was classified into five levels. Three numerical characteristics were calculated, and the weights were assigned by an integrated weighting algorithm. The uncertainty of each spring was calculated by a cloud generator and the integrated certainty grades of water quality were determined. To ensure the accuracy of the normal cloud model, the proposed method was used to assess the water quality of springs in Jinan, China. The results obtained by the proposed method were compared with that of the other four methods. The results obtained by different methods are highly consistent. The proposed cloud model-based method can reflect the water quality level and provides a practical guide for water quality evaluation, as demonstrated in Jinan springs.

Physicochemical and microbiological assessment of spring water in central Himalayan region

In the present study, water quality of 16 springs, located along National Highway-58 from Rishikesh to Badrinath in India, was assessed by determining various physicochemical and microbiological parameters in three different seasons, i.e., pre-monsoon, monsoon, and post-monsoon. For majority of the springs, the pH was slightly alkaline with temperature ranging between 10 and 27°C. All other parameters such as total hardness (TH), total alkalinity (TA), chloride, phosphate, nitrate, total dissolved solids (TDS), electrical conductivity (EC), dissolved oxygen (DO), and biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) were found to lie within the acceptable limit prescribed by various standard national and international agencies. The principal component analysis reveals that water quality of springs mainly depends on mineral contents of water, as there is a loading of TH, TA, EC, TDS, and other mineral components during one or other season of a year. The positive correlation coefficients determined among mineral components of spring water further substantiate this fact. No loading of DO, BOD, nitrate, and phosphate indicates an absence of anthropogenic pollution in the studied area. No trace metals were detected in any of the springs. Most probable number (MPN) index for coliforms was found to be above the acceptable limit for all the springs in one or more seasons of a year, except the one in Pandukeshwar. Plate-based assay revealed the presence of pathogens like Salmonella, Shigella, Vibrio, and Pseudomonas in some spring water. The findings of the present work reveal that due to high MPN index and presence of other pathogenic bacteria, water from most of the springs cannot be considered completely safe for direct human consumption in its raw form.

Deciphering Interannual Temperature Variations in Springs of the Campania Region (Italy)

While the effects of climate change on the thermal regimes of surface waters have already been assessed by many studies, there is still a lack of knowledge on the effects on groundwater temperature and on the effects on spring water quality. The online available dataset of the Campania Environmental Agency (ARPAC) was analysed via spatial, temporal and statistical analyses to assess the impact of climate variability on 118 springs, monitored over the period from 2002 to 2017. The meteorological dataset was used to compute average annual precipitation and atmospheric temperatures. Spring water temperatures, electrical conductivity, pH, chloride and fluoride were selected to determine if climate variations had a significant impact on spring water quality. This study shows that the Campania region has experienced an increase of spring water temperatures of approximately 2.0 °C during the monitored period. This is well-linked with the increase of atmospheric minimum temperatures, but not with average and maximum atmospheric temperatures. The spring water temperature increases were not reflected by a concomitant change of the analysed water quality parameters. The latter were linked to the precipitation trend and other local factors, like spring altitude and the presence of geothermal heat fluxes.

Assessment of Spring Water Quality in the Rural Watersheds of Western Nepal

A preliminary study was conducted to analyze the water quality of spring waters in rural watershed of Western Nepal. 155 spring water samples were collected from Jhimruk, Rangun, Bogtan-Lagam Karnali, Thuligad and Middle Karnali watershed. Collection and analysis occurred twice, once in pre-monsoon 2018 and post-monsoon 2018. Various physical and chemical parameters were analyzed by using standard water quality measurements and compared with the Nepal Drinking Water Quality Standard and the World Health Organization Standard Guideline. The results indicate that the turbidity was high during pre-monsoon season. The highest turbidity of 63.8 NTU was observed in the Bogtan-Lagam Karnali watershed. Two spring sources—one in Bogtan-Lagam Karnali and one in Middle Karnali exceeded the health standard for nitrate-N. The phosphate levels were high during the pre-monsoon season in Jhimruk and Rangun watershed in all the studied sites. Dissolved oxygen levels were relatively high during post-monsoon season. Results of the water quality index in all the studied sites revealed that the water quality ranges from being poor to good conditions in the spring sources. The results from this study suggested that the water bodies are relatively good and can be used for domestic purposes after suitable treatment.

Physicochemical parameters and phytoplankton as indicators of the aquatic environment in karstic springs of South China

As the concentrated discharge outlet of an aquifer or groundwater system, a karst spring is partly independent from the aquifer, due to its formation of a pool or lake after outcropping onto the surface. Understanding how to evaluate the unique and sensitive environment of the karst spring is essential for water resource protection. Five karst springs in South China were investigated by analyzing their hydrodynamic conditions, variations in physicochemical parameters, and phytoplankton community structures. Dominated by regional or local groundwater flow, these springs had different catchment area characteristics and hydrogeological conditions. The results showed that, although they had similar water quality, their physicochemical parameters needed to be distinguished and evaluated in different ways in order to determine the cause of the observed degradation in spring water quality. Ca2+, HCO3−, and specific electrical conductivity were the major parameters reflecting the impact of regional flow from the aquifer; pH, dissolved oxygen, and water temperature indicated the local environment in and around the springs; while nitrogen and CODMn both related to the aquifer and local environment, depending on seasonal variation and human activities. The comparison of long-term nitrate data revealed that environmental pressure has increased over time. Water deterioration of Lingshui Spring was attributed to the strong interaction of surface water and groundwater. High nutrient concentrations did not correspond with the highest phytoplankton abundance or the most species. The phytoplankton community structures in the karst springs varied from place to place, depending on the hydrogeological conditions and the surrounding environment. The water environment status, as reflected by the combination of water quality indices and biological indicators, could more comprehensively represent overall water health.

Investigation of spring water quality in the Natuv catchment, Palestine: a component for the regional environmental management system

Groundwater quality indicators were mapped and integrated with spatial information about the surrounding environment for groundwater protection management. Three sampling campaigns were conducted at 17 springs in the Natuv surface water basin in Western Ramallah/Palestine (48 samples). The samples were analyzed for physico–chemical parameters: major ions, trace elements, and total and fecal coliform bacteria. Analyses included physical parameters pH, temperature, and EC, and concentrations of chemical constituents Na+, K+, Ca2+, Mg2+, Cl–, HCO3–, NO3–, and SO42–. Results were used in a regional water-quality trend assessment and the spring water was found to be polluted in the springs located inside the populated areas. Relationships between different hydrochemical parameters reflect the carbonate nature of the western aquifers. Spring water in the study area is found to be circum neutral to slightly alkaline with average pH ranging from 6.4 to 8.3 and the EC values ranging from 410 to 1307 μS/cm. The average concentrations of anions and cations in all water samples are within WHO standards, with the exception of calcium in some samples. Some samples contain concentrations of trace elements Co, Zn, Sr, Mn, B, Al, Cu, Fe, and Ba, above WHO standards. Hydrochemical analyses show that most springs in the study area have a water type of Ca–Mg–HCO3−. New measurements were uploaded along with historical water quality data to the online mapping and data management system myObservatory, where they could be added to, accessed, and analyzed by multiple users including decision-makers in the study area.

Influence of extreme hydrological events in the quality of water reservoirs in the semi-arid tropical region

ABSTRACT Inland water environments, such as natural and artificial lakes, are increasingly vulnerable to extreme events (heavy rains, severe drought). This study aims to evaluate if this events affect the water quality of tropical semi-arid springs. The results showed that the reservoirs presented significant changes in the limnological variables between the rainy season and severe drought periods. However, different behaviors were observed among reservoirs in the period of severe drought, which indicate that the responses of these environments to extreme events should take into account other factors such as the climate of the region, the size and depth of the reservoir.