Spread Of War Research Articles

Digital Actors and Digital Platforms in the System of International Relations: Between Complex Interdependence and Online Sovereignty

The article analyzes deep changes in international relations that are taking place in the context of the increasing role of digital actors and platforms in shaping the global agenda. The emergence of the Internet was a turning point in the development of the entire system of global communications. The Internet changed the way information is spread and public opinion is shaped, while digital platforms became a new factor of globalization. At the same time, as the authors demonstrate, the original nature of the Internet, which was viewed by the United States and the West as an integral part and technology of the liberal order, in the end started to reflect the increasing confrontation between states, and became a space for the spread of political conflicts, stereotypes and information wars. In addition, new digital oligopolies began to shape the digital space based on their corporate interests, prioritizing their market share rather than the quality of online discussions and the strengthening of the civic democratic culture. The weaponization and securitization of the Internet is a logical continuation of the crisis of the global liberal order. The complex interdependence, which was strengthened by digital actors and digital platforms, is increasingly being replaced by the idea of digital sovereignty. States aim to decouple from a single communicative space and to create norms protecting them and their citizens from the excessive influence of the Big Tech. The authors conclude that we are experiencing the sunset of the era of information openness. Depoliticization of the Internet is impossible without reducing international tension and reviving the spirit of rationalism in world politics. Only through getting back to reason can we return to the Internet the role of a creative, rather than destructive technology.

War shock and the economy

AbstractThe main features of war shock are substantially different from those of the preceding COVID-19 shock. The EU economy is showing important elements of resilience. The existing structural forces and adaptive capacity of the EU economy are clear indications that it is capable of transformation and avoiding recession.The dynamics of the war is also crucial in terms of economic impacts. There are still many uncertainties about the future course of the war and its ramifications. The fundamental question is whether the war is heading in the direction of escalation or de-escalation. Unless the war spreads beyond Ukraine and the conventional means of warfare, its global economic consequences may be limited after the initial shock. New adjustment processes in the field of green and digital transition can be set in motion in parallel with the suffering and turmoil of war shock. New market players could emerge in the energy markets.The prolonged war continues to challenge the Ukrainian economy, but it can remain viable with massive external support. The Russian economy could suffer serious erosion, with its comparative advantage being wasted.There is a real threat of deglobalisation and the emergence of a fragmented world economy, but the counteracting factors appear to be much stronger. However, the prolonged war continues to pose major and unpredictable threats to the countries affected directly and indirectly, to Europe and to the world economy.

THE ONTOLOGY OF NETWORK WARFARE: THE ESSENCE AND CONSEQUENCES

The constitution of a new space for the functioning of social reality due to the impact of information and communication technologies on all spheres of human activity contributed to the transformation of traditional military operations, which resulted in the spread of network wars. The networking and digitalization of society has led to a change in human existence. Cognitive, informational, social, and psychological aspects of network processes form a new picture of the world, creating conditions for changing people's mentality and behavior. Therefore, the identification of the ontological foundations of network warfare is of particular importance. The disclosure of its essence is a prerequisite for the development of measures to preserve the security of the statedevelopment. The transformation of the mechanism of datainformational impact on the consciousness and meaning of both an individual and large social groups has led to a change in the civic position of the individual, expanding the possibilities for manipulating public opinion. The formation of new network structures and the spread of cyberterrorism are modifying the world order. Network wars have become an integral phenomenon of the modern realityexistence. Their attribute, which determines the specifics of the conflict unfolding, is the destructive use of information. Information disseminated on the Internet forms social content. Thus, new conditions are being created for the aggravation of contradictions, including the world community in the zone of confrontation, manipulating the behavior of its representatives, creating opportunities for non-contact warfare.

Does war spread the herding effect in stock markets? Evidence from emerging and developed markets during the Russia-Ukraine war

This paper investigates the influence of the Russia-Ukraine conflict on herding behavior in global stock markets. Examining MSCI World and MSCI Emerging indexes alongside Russia, the study explores imitation tendencies before the invasion, immediately after commencement of war, and during an extended war period. Findings reveal that emerging markets facing heightened geopolitical risk, either due to their proximity to the conflict or to commercial interests in energy markets, exhibit herding during the initial war phase. This analysis sheds light on the impact of geopolitical events on financial market dynamics, particularly in emerging economies.

To Busan and Beyond: Mobilities of Korean War Trauma

The Korean War (1950-1953) leveled the peninsula, losing and displacing millions of its people. Hundreds of thousands of Koreans from North and South found themselves in refugee camps in Busan. This traumatizing event is carefully delineated in Yi Hochol’s “Far from Home” and Han Musook’s “The Fragment.” Through an analysis of these short stories using Kate Coddington’s theory of contagious trauma, the paper forwards that the trauma caused by the war spreads, compounds, and expands within the infrastructures—namely, freight cars and warehouse—that facilitate the movements of refugees. In “Far from Home,” during the outbreak of the Korean War, four North Koreans move southward and live in freight cars, but this movement to escape the horrors of war also exposes them to being further traumatized by their homelessness. The characters in “The Fragment,” on the other hand, are able to secure a space in a warehouse in Busan, but the atmosphere coupled with tension with residents over basic necessities is just as traumatizing. These indicate that the infrastructures and conditions within, which can be as ordinary as needing a shelter to sleep in and water to wash themselves, traumatize further the already traumatized. The war, as an extraordinary event, traumatized the refugees—but their movements to safety and refuge, in response to it, cut more traumas.

Measuring Spatiotemporal Civil War Dimensions Using Community-Based Dynamic Network Representation (CoDNet)

Civil war exhibits complex geospatial trends over time, which may be missed by models that rely on count-based operationalizations. Here, the spatial and temporal correlation values of monthly civil war events are transformed into their influence degree symbol, which measures geospatial concentration, spread, and intensity of civil war. We then measure variation in these degrees over time to identify relevant spatiotemporal civil war aspects. The network model is constructed using 0.5 degree grid locations as nodes, counting nearby and over time connections. We then extract the temporal community structure behind the data. We use ground-truth data to visualize how our measures correlate with observed patterns, thereby illustrating our method provides accurate depictions of geospatial civil war dynamics. We also evaluate the impact of several indicators highlighted by past research and our community-based spatiotemporal measures and comparing it to the preprocessed count indicator. Our findings indicate that the relationship between state capacity and climate stress show opposite correlations with civil war as those identified by studies that use count-based indicators. Counterintuitively, our results show that conflict intensifies and spreads in locations where the state is stronger and where climate conditions are improved.

PLANTAR, TRADUZIR, MINERAR: ANÍSIO TEIXEIRA (1935-1947)

ABSTRACT: We take Anísio Teixeira as a hub, from which we aim to design the configuration of networks, linking subjects and institutions. We choose the period from 1935 to 1947, scrutinizing the editorial work he carried out for Companhia Editora Nacional (CEN), based on documentation from the publisher’s collection at the Center for Memory and Historical Research of the History of UNIFESP; as well as documents about Anísio’s brief stay at UNESCO, form July 15, 1946 to February 15, 1947, existing at CPDOC-FGV and at the UNESCO Archives. The text is structured in two: in the first part, we highlight Anísio's work in CEN: in the second one, the focus shifts to his career at UNESCO. In both, it is the mobile web of networks that drives the writing, guided by an argument based on the transnational history of education. It is important to highlight that when we address the reflection to a transnational perspective, we are not neglecting the national space, nor placing Brazil in a peripheral position with respect to a supposed center that disseminates knowledge. On the contrary, we intend to reconfigure the territory based on the experiences of the subjects, the exchanges established, problematizing the confinement of physical borders in the organization of the educational field, in a time marked by the spread of authoritarian governments, war and reconstruction efforts on a global scale.

Libyan Crisis 2014-2018: The Conflict of the Internal Political and Social Forces and the Failure of the Political Solution

Objectives: The study aims to analyze the impact of the state of conflict and lack of harmony between the internal Libyan political and social forces, on the continuity and development of the Libyan crisis 2014-2018, and the failure of all political initiatives proposed to solve it. Methods: The subject was studied through the analytical descriptive approach based on analyzing the data and statements issued by the active forces in the course of the crisis, and its alignment with the reality of the course of events . Results: The study showed that the main factor in the continuity and the development of the Libyan crisis is related, in the first place, to the rejection of all the internal Libyan conflict forces, specially the Islamic and liberal ones of all the proposed political agreement attempts, and the endeavor of each of them to monopolize power and exclude the other, and the rejection of the principle of polititical pluralism. Conclusions: The Libyan crisis 2014-2018 was formed by what Libya inherited after the 2011 revolution, embodied by a weak authority that was unable to impose state sovereignty on all parts of the country, This led to the ignition of conflict between all internal political and social Libyan forces and the spread of civil war. The intervention of greedy foreign powers, especially the European power, helped in its development. They were looking forward to dominating Libyan wealth.

Education on the culture of difference and acceptance of the other entrance to achieve coexistence

Difference is a cosmic year that does not contradict human unity, and it is one of the rights guaranteed by all religions and legal legislation and their enemy from natural laws, and made of mercy, justice, tolerance, coexistence and dialogue. The wisdom of God Almighty has decreed that making difference is as old as creation, and it is an eternal cosmic norm and human nature. It is an absolute impossibility to gather people on one word. The one who meditates on the history of mankind concludes that most wars and conflicts were caused primarily by the absence of dialogue, the lack of acceptance of the other, the attempt to impose a single opinion, and the failure to create a common space for mutual understanding and coexistence, which caused the spread of nervousness and racism in all its forms, and resulted in devastation, destruction and tragedies that humanity is still reaping. its woes to this day. With successive days, awareness of the importance of peaceful coexistence, acceptance of the other and management of difference increased, especially in the era of globalization in which the world has become a single village in which no party can be excluded. Education on dialogue and acceptance of the other is one of the basic approaches to achieving peaceful coexistence. Therefore, the educational curricula should take care of the students, provide them with material and moral requirements, and teach them methods of civili tance of differences in opinion. Through a modern educational plan aimed at achieving this lofty educational goal in the horizon of its extension in society to become a community practice and civilized behavior stemming from the individuality of man. In order to achieve the aforementioned goal, the school must be an example and a living model to be emulated, and make the school a living micro-society and a public space open for exchange, cooperation, participation, creativity, integration, taking initiatives and completing projects through building an educational curriculum that gives ample space for consolidating a culture of dialogue, acceptance of the other, peaceful coexistence and rejection of violence. And other values that twist in this direction. The purpose of this is to improve the school and the general community so that its children can coexist and accept differences among themselves.The importance of this research is mainly reflected in shedding light on this important topic, which was overlooked by a group of Arab and African countries, and this caused conflicts and wars, which disrupted the development and democratic process of these countries. The research also refers to the most important basic approaches to consolidating the values of coexistence and acceptance of the other, through procedural activities within the classroom, the family and society in general. The spread of war and violence between some countries and the spread of nervousness among individuals and groups have disrupted the comprehensive development process of these countries, and to solve these problems, a set of questions must be asked that will be a starting point in order to reach possible solutions. What are the reasons for intolerance of opinion and rejection of the other ? How do we address this through the intervention of state institutions and civil society ? How can this be achieved in educational institutions ? In order to answer these and other questions, it is necessary to follow a descriptive and analytical methodology based on a set of different studies related to the subject of coexistence and acceptance of the other, and to link them in order to reach tangible and practical results away from all self-bias. Therefore, we will try to start from major goals and how to implement them on the ground through society, and from within the educational institution through different study materials in order to achieve competencies that serve us dialogue and accept differences and peaceful coexistence.

REVIEW: Award-winning account of Taranaki taonga’s long journey home

Te Motonui Epa, by Rachel Buchanan. Wellington: Bridget William Books, 2022. 251 pages. ISBN: 9781990046582.
 TE MOTONUI EPA is a brilliant account of how five carved panels that were smuggled out of New Zealand were recovered after a long struggle and prompted major reassessments in official attitudes towards preserving Indigenous artefacts. The story begins during the Musket Wars when Ngāpuhi and Ngāti Whātua rivalry led to clashes in which warriors armed with European weapons fought for dominance in the North Island. As war spread to the Taranaki, Te Ātiawa hapū dismantled their most important public buildings and hid significant pieces in the Peropero swamps.

The role of Igbo women in peace building during the Nigerian civil war: 1967 – 1970

The salient roles of Igbo women during the Nigeria Civil War were a catalyst in the survival of many dying and suffering children, and the broken and frustrated Biafra soldiers. The roles too were important in the internal security of Igboland in the absence of the men who were on the war front to defend the fatherland. The devastation caused by the war affected the culture and traditional institutions of the Igbo, which in effect, posed a double challenge to the women. Igbo women were not only victims of the war, they were challenged too with roles of acting as heads of their various families and bridge builders in communal and inter-communal relations. The women amid uncertainties embarked individually and communally on peace-building processes. A spectrum of interventions embarked by the women to bring the end to the war spread across the area of health, business, international relations and food security through their salient actions, which enhanced and promoted human security and created positive peace in the land. This paper examines these roles played by Igbo women during the war and how their efforts helped bring about peace and hope during, and after the war period. Looking back and the devastation of that time, the Igbo women today would abhor any wars in Nigeria. We employ the conflict transformation theory in this narrative and conclude that Igbo women are creative peace-builders.

РЕАЛЬНІ ТА ПОТЕНЦІЙНІ ЗАГРОЗИ ЦИФРОВОЇ ЕКОНОМІКИ В УМОВАХ ВІЙНИ

The constant progress of science and technology, as well as the means of processing and transmitting information and the Internet in particular, has led to the massive spread of digital tools in all aspects of social activity. This leads to a major transformation of the economic and industrial infrastructure, has a significant positive effect on business development, but also has a corresponding effect on the development of crime. Thus, real and potential threats require special attention, particularly in the context of the global security crisis, the spread of wars and armed hybrid conflicts, and the increasing use of digital infrastructure for military purposes. The methods used in the paper include statistical, general mathematical, comparative, dialectical, systematic approach, and system analysis. The graphical method was used to build graphs, and presentation of the study uses the historical method. This article chronologically reveals the consistently contradictory role of economic digitalization in the state’s economic security in times of war. Based on the experience of the digital sector of six countries in four cyber conflicts, the advantages and disadvantages of digital infrastructure in wartime are summarized. The reserve capacity created by the digitalization of the economy to ensure the economic security of the state in the context of hostilities and post-war recovery was assessed. The specificity and possibilities of striking digital infrastructure together with the use of digital technologies in modern conventional wars are analyzed. The dual impact of digital technologies on the security of the state and the sustainability of the national economy is highlighted. The dynamics and effects of Russian cyberattacks against Estonia, Georgia, and Ukraine in the short and long term are analyzed. The effectiveness of counteracting threats to Ukrainian economic security in the digital sphere during the war is proven. The article substantiates further steps to ensure the security of Ukraine's digital economy proactively. The article has practical implications for the development of state policy on measures to ensure economic security in the digital aspect. It can also be used for further systematic study of cyber warfare and threats to the digitalization of the national economy.

Rus General Dmitriy Nikolayeviç Dubenskiy’nin Birinci Dünya Savaşı Öncesinde Türk Kara Kuvvetlerine Dair Değerlendirmeleri

According to war historians, the First World War spread over vast areas incomparable with the wars that preceded it, leading to devastating results with social turmoil. When examined in terms of their dimensions, dynamism, repercussions and consequences, many issues stand out, from the collapse of empires to mass migrations, the deaths of millions of civilians and soldiers to international crimes and epidemics.The information about the land military power of the Ottoman Empire in the work titled “Yearbook of the War” which Tsar Nikolai II of Russia, Alexandrovich Romanov had General Dmitriy Nikolayevich Dubenskiy personally write the war day by day was meticulously examined in this study. The work, which has not been translated into different languages other than Russian, is an essential work to be taken into consideration by the scientific circles and subjected to a comparative analysis in terms of reflecting the knowledge and views of Tsarist Russia about the war.

Mass Migrations And The Emerging Socio-Political Constructs Of Identity, Interest And Security In Hosts State

Mass Migrations And The Emerging Socio-Political Constructs Of Identity, Interest And Security In Hosts State

The Damage Suffered by Danube Bridges in Yugoslavia During the Twentieth Century

During the “short” twentieth century, the Yugoslav state on several occasions faced wars or conflicts in which it temporarily or permanently disappeared. The Second World War irrevocably destroyed the Kingdom of Yugoslavia. It was occupied, fragmented, and came out of the war with a changed socio-political structure. When the fire of war spread again to Yugoslavia in April 1941, the Danube bridges were also damaged. They were destroyed by the Yugoslav army in an attempt to slow down the advance of German troops. At that time, the symbolic bridges of Belgrade and Novi Sad — the Bridge of King Peter the Second and the Bridge of Prince Tomislav — were destroyed. Temporary or rebuilt bridges were also damaged in the final phase of the war in 1944, either by Allied bombing raids or during the withdrawal of German troops, who demolished them in order to slow the invasion of the Yugoslav People’s Liberation Army and the Red Army. Half a century later, the bridges were damaged again. During the NATO aggression on the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia in 1999, the most important roads were also hit. Among others, several Danube bridges were damaged, including all three bridges in Novi Sad — Varadin Bridge, Žeželj’s Bridge, and the Bridge of Freedom. The Danube bridges in Yugoslavia shared the fate of the state that built them. They were demolished and rebuilt, and their story is a metaphor for the history of a country that no longer exists, and which once covered a significant part of the course of the Danube.

PRIVATE MILITARY COMPANIES AND THE “PRIVATIZATION” OF MILITARY CONFLICTS IN THE CONTEX OF THE DEMONOPOLIZATION OF THE STATE VIOLEN

The prerequisites for the emergence of private military companies and private security companies, the features of their functioning in the context of the demonopolization of state violence are considered. The influence of the establishment of a monopoly on the use of violence in the process of the formation of states of the modern type (states of the Modern era) is highlighted. In a historical retrospective, the reasons for the formation of a state monopoly on the use of violence, factors that contributed to the strengthening of royal power, led to the centralization of state power and the formation of depersonalized rational-bureaucratic state institutions are presented. The role of wars in the emergence of regular armies in the context of the formation of modern-type states is analyzed. The influence of the Cold War on the emergence of private military companies and low-intensity military companies is considered, structural prerequisites for the spread of private military companies both in developed countries and in developing countries are identified. The connection between the loss of the monopoly on the use of violence by states and the emergence of low-intensity wars is shown. The main reasons for the disappearance of high-intensity wars are analyzed. It is shown that the loss of a monopoly on the use of violence by states is not a constant, but is the result of the spread of low-intensity wars that arise due to the loss of advantages in waging high-intensity wars.

Rach Cat Fort - The Largest French-Built Strategic Fort In Vietnam In Early 20th Century

In 1900, at the risk of the spread of World War I, the French strengthened the defensive lines on the southwestern coast of France as well as the forts along the Germany-France border. In Vietnam, after occupying all six provinces in the South, in order to protect Sai Gon - the capital of the six provinces from other Western powerhouses, the French built a coastal defensive line stretching from present-day Vung Tau to Can Gio (Sai Gon) and to Can Duoc (Long An) to counter the attacks from the coast to the mainland. Long Huu Island, located between the three rivers of Can Giuoc (Rach Cat), Vam Co and Soai Rap (Nha Be) was chosen as the place to build one of the largest military forts in Indochina at that time - Rach Cat Fort (the French also called it “River Defense System” and “Cap Saint-Jacques"). This is one of the earliest military buildings and the most fortified forts across Indochina, which played a crucial role to the French in Southern Vietnam. In the course of its existence, Rach Cat Fort witnessed many military operations. Currently, despite deteriorated parts, the structure of Rach Cat Fort is still intact. With its unique historical value as well as aesthetic value as an old European-style fort, Rach Cat Fort has been ranked as a National Historic Site and is being developed by local authorities into a tourist attraction that attaches historical relics to eco-tourism.

An Analysis of the Overseas Dissemination Mechanism of American English in the Post-Cold War Era

The overseas dissemination of American English is the result of conscious language promotion. During the colonial era, the broadcasting of American English relied on compulsory promotion and church education. During World War I, the rise of American products, personnel, technology, and mass media spread American English to all corners of the world; after World War I, English gained the status of the official language of the international system, organizations, and conferences. During World War II, the contribution of the United States in the war spread American English to all parts of the world on an unprecedented scale; after World War II, the United States led the establishment of an international security and economic system, and American English subsequently became the dominant language in the new order of international relations. During the Cold War, the United States planned and implemented many cultural strategies to promote each other with American English promotion activities. In the 1990s, the information technology revolution, the wave of globalization, and the development of global media groups made the overseas dissemination of American English faster, more effective, and deeper. American English in the post-Cold War era is an important component of American soft power and the most important tool for the export of American culture, ideology, and values. It occupies a special position in the construction of the comprehensive strength of the United States and maintains a post-Cold War US-led international order.

COVID-19 vaccines: the dilemma when thinking as a patient

What is the truth about the conspiracy theory of the COVID-19 microchip vaccine? The outbreak of the COVID-19 witnessed a vicious race of pharmaceutical firms to develop a vaccine that ends this disaster. Claims were forwarded that some firms funded by well-known foundations are in the process of developing such a vaccine so people wide world can be tracked. Such claims may have been based on Mr. Bill Gate’s announcement in an interview that through vaccination "we will have some digital certificates" which would be used to show who had recovered, been tested and ultimately who received a vaccine but he made no mention of microchips. The conspiracy theory is spreading around the world and its supporters are on the increase among the public as well as many healthcare professionals. The spread of the virus has been attributed to the introduction of 5G technology and many religious leaders attributed the crisis to punishment from God to the spread of local wars and mass killing, torturing and killing of Muslims in China and Myanmar gay and lesbian movement and marriages.

Conflict Environments and Civil War Onset

Abstract The spread of civil war poses serious risks and costs. We argue that conflict environments, which vary across time and space, systematically exacerbate the spread of civil war. As conflict in a state’s neighborhood becomes more spatially proximate and as lingering effects of conflict accumulate over time, that state’s risk of civil war onset increases. To theorize and test this argument, we construct the conflict environment (CE) score, a concept that taps into spatial and temporal dimensions of violence in a state’s neighborhood. Using the CE score in established empirical models of civil war onset, we demonstrate that a dangerous conflict environment consistently elevates the risk of civil war, outperforming traditional measures of nearby violence, even when domestic factors are taken into account.