Spread Of Pathogenic Microorganisms Research Articles

The Characterization of the Hydrophobic Surface of Nanocomposites Aloe vera/PS for Antimicrobial Pathogens

The spread of pathogenic microorganisms on a large scale creates a health disaster for the world. Modifying the surface of the fabric so that it is antimicrobial pathogens with hydrophobic properties is one solution to inhibit the spread of microorganisms. Surface modification was carried out using Aloe vera powder as filler and polystyrene matrix with Aloe vera:PS composition variations of 1:5, 2:5, and 3:5 using the dip coating method and drying temperatures of 10◦C, 50◦C, and 90◦C. The characterization results that have been carried out with the best composition variations are 3:5 and 50◦C with a layered morphology using Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM), resulting in a surface particle size of 21.243 nm, large contact angle/WCA using a Canon D350 camera with a size of 150.23◦, Fourier Transmission Infrared Analysis (FTIR) with the dominant functional group in the vibration band 2629 cm−1 indicates the presence of a long hydroxyl chain, the vibration band 1500 cm−1 with C-H stretching of the aromatic ring is caused by the characteristics of the polystyrene polymer and the wave number is 1700 cm−1 with stretching C=O which shows the characteristics of the carbonyl group in the Aloe vera sample is a flavonoid compound. The resistance of Aloe vera/PS solution to Klebsiella pneumonia resulted in a 20.18 mm diameter barrier showing strong resistance against bacteria and X-Ray Diffraction analysis showed that the AV powder was amorphous. Thus, the AV/PS 3:5 composition with a calcination temperature of 50◦C represents the greatest variation in the synthesis and characterization of hydrophobic thin films for pathogenic antimicrobial organisms.

Bioinspired nanoflakes with antifouling and mechano-bactericidal capacity

Pathogenic bacteria contamination ubiquitously occurs on high-contact surfaces in hospitals and has long been a threat to public health, inducing severe nosocomial infections that cause multiple organ dysfunction and increased hospital mortality. Recently, nanostructured surfaces with mechano-bactericidal properties have shown potential for modifying material surfaces to fight against the spread of pathogenic microorganisms without the risk of triggering antibacterial resistance. Nevertheless, these surfaces are readily contaminated by bacterial attachment or inanimate pollutants like solid dust or common fluids, which has greatly weakened their antibacterial capabilities. In this work, we discovered that the nonwetting Amorpha fruticosa leaf surfaces are equipped with mechano-bactericidal capacity by means of their randomly-arranged nanoflakes. Inspired by this discovery, we reported an artificial superhydrophobic surface with similar nanofeatures and superior antibacterial abilities. Compared to conventional bactericidal surfaces, this bioinspired antibacterial surface was synergistically accompanied by antifouling performances, which significantly prevent either initial bacterial attachment or inanimate pollutants like dust covering and fluid contaminants. Overall, the bioinspired antifouling nanoflakes surface holds promise as the design of next-generation high-touch surface modification that effectively reduces the transmission of nosocomial infections.

Hybrid Antimicrobial Films Containing a Polyoxometalate-Ionic Liquid.

The increasing resistance of pathogenic microorganisms against common treatments requires innovative concepts to prevent infection and avoid long-term microbe viability on commonly used surfaces. Here, we report the preparation of a hybrid antimicrobial material based on the combination of microbiocidal polyoxometalate-ionic liquids (POM-ILs) and a biocompatible polymeric support, which enables the development of surface coatings that prevent microbial adhesion. The composite material is based on an antibacterial and antifungal room-temperature POM-IL composed of guanidinium cations (N,N,N′,N′-tetramethyl-N″, N″-dioctylguanidinum) combined with lacunary Keggin-type polyoxotungstate anions, [α-SiW11O39]8–. Integration of the antimicrobial POM-IL into the biocompatible, flexible, and stable polymer poly(methyl methacrylate) (PMMA) results in processable films, which are suitable as surface coatings or packaging materials to limit the proliferation and spread of pathogenic microorganisms (e.g., on public transport and hospital surfaces, or in ready-to-eat-food packaging).

Functional Analysis and Proteomics Profiling of Extracellular Vesicles From Swine Plasma Infected by African Swine Fever Virus.

African swine fever (ASF) has brought excellent barriers to swine production in China and the world. Studies have shown that extracellular vesicles mediate the RNA and protein spread of pathogenic microorganisms and RNA and proteins. After infection by pathogenic microorganisms causes significant differences in the proteins contained within extracellular vesicles. Based on the above studies, the extracellular vesicles were extracted from ASF virus (ASFV)-infected swine plasma. And qPCR, western blot, and confocal experiment were carried out. The research shows that extracted extracellular vesicles significantly promote the replication of ASFV in susceptible and non-susceptible cells Proteomics analysis of the extracellular vesicle proteins revealed that ASFV infection could cause significant differences in the protein profile. This study demonstrates that extracellular vesicles play a critical role in ASFV replication and transmission and cause significant differences in the protein profile encapsulated in extracellular vesicles.

Airborne Fungi in a Neonatal Intensive Care Unit and Operating Theater in a University Hospital

Monitoring the microbiological quality of indoor air in hospital environments is a matter of comprehensive discussion due to its influence on the transmission and spread of pathogenic microorganisms. Among the artificially air-conditioned environments, hospitals are noteworthy for being specific places for the treatment and recovery of patients. In addition to problems related to patients health and professionals health, immunocompromised patients are more exposed to microorganisms present in the air currents of the refrigeration system in these environments, which can lead to consequences such as the occurrence of outbreaks. The objective of this work was to evaluate the indoor air quality in critical hospital environments of a teaching hospital in the city of Maceió, the state of Alagoas. In addition, we sought to identify the anemophilous fungal microbiota present. Air collections were taken in the rainy season, totaling, following recommendations indicated by Resolution No. 9 of the Brazilian National Health Surveillance Agency. The study was based on determining the concentration parameter of bioaerosols in indoor and outdoor air. The fungal microbiota identification was carried out by analyzing macro and microscopic characteristics for filamentous fungi and the use of molecular tools for yeasts. The most frequent species in hospital critical environments were Cladosporium cladosporioides, Penicillium piceum, Penicillium aurantiogriseum, Cladosporium herbarum and Aspergillus oryzae. In outdoor air, the most frequently found fungi were Penicillium sp., Aspergillus sp., and Cladosporium species. Candida tropicalis, C. krusei, and C. parapsilosis were identified among the yeasts in indoor and outdoor air samples. Identifying potentially pathogenic fungi in the evaluated environments points to the need for continuous monitoring of indoor air quality. Furthermore, to avoid the widespread fungal pathogens and the consequent occurrence of outbreaks, the adoption of indoor air microbiological quality analysis programs is suggested as an essential tool in developing infection control standards. In our study, airborne fungi are reported as indoor air contaminants in critical hospital environments. This finding is noteworthy because, in general, individuals present in these environments have an immunological impairment.

Antimicrobial Activity of Commonly Used Medicated Soaps on Multi-Drug Resistant Staphylococcus aureus and Escherichia coli in Maiduguri, Nigeria

Background: The spread of antibiotic resistant infections in both hospital and community settings is a global public health problem. Proper hand washing with soaps has been described as a simple means of preventing disease transmission. Objectives: The antimicrobial activities of six commonly used medicated soaps - Safeguard®, Dettol®, Crusader®, Septol®, Tetmosol® and Sabulun salo (Local black soap) against multi-drug resistant pathogenic Staphylococcus aureus and Escherichia coli isolates were investigated in Maiduguri metropolis. Methods: Two isolates each of Staphylococcus aureus and Escherichia coli were collected from laboratory unit of the University of Maiduguri Teaching Hospital and confirmed using standard microbiological procedures. Antibiotic susceptibility testing was determined using standard disc assay method. The effectiveness of the soaps against these organisms was determined using agar well diffusion and broth dilution methods. Results: The E. coli and S. aureus isolates were multi-drug resistant to the tested antimicrobials. Only one of the S. aureus isolates was susceptible to Safeguard®, Dettol®, Tetmosol® and Sabulun salo, while the other three isolates were resistant using the agar well diffusion method. Dettol®, Tetmosol® and Sabulun salo had the highest activity against all the isolates. One of the S. aureus isolates exhibited the highest susceptibility at MIC 1.56mg/ml and MBC 3.175mg/ml of the soaps’ concentrations. Conclusion: This study showed that Dettol®, Tetmosol® and Sabulun salo are the most effective soaps against antibiotic resistant bacteria and thus can be used to control the spread of pathogenic microorganisms in hospitals and communities through proper hand hygiene.

Nosocomial infections as one of the most important problems of healthcare system.

Healthcare-associated infections (HAI) are commonly defined as adverse events resulting from the provision of healthcare. The reduction of risk arising from the spread of pathogenic microorganisms in the hospital environment is a considerable challenge in the context of the proper functioning of the medical services sector. The financial costs of hospitals resulting from HAI are a serious problem for the Polish healthcare system. The spread of strains with a high level of drug resistance in individual hospitals is associated with the local epidemiological situation. In 2015-2017, there was a high increase in the number of infections caused by New Delhi strains. The highest increase due to this strain occurred in Mazowieckie and Podlasie provinces. The dynamics of infection caused by New Delhi strains throughout Poland in 2015-2016 indicated an increase of 278.7%. In 2017, the phenomenon of antibiotic abuse in all regions of Poland was 24% higher than the EU average. One of the reasons is the insufficient number of diagnostic tests ordered by both general practitioners and doctors representing hospital care. In 2016-2017, the average number of microbiological tests in diagnosing hospital infections performed annually within the entire territory of Poland was 50% lower than in European Union countries and the number recommended by WHO. Increased, and at the same time inappropriate antibiotic therapy led to a build-upof drug resistance among bacterial species of significant clinical importance. The current epidemiological situation imposes the necessity for constant HAI control and broadly understood rationalization of the guidelines of hospital antibiotic policy.

Mechanism of MRET Treated Water Inhibition Effect on Morphology of Pathogenic Microorganisms: A Review

We found the significant protective properties of MRET water confirmed by substantial decrease of Staphylococcus aureus CFU (colony forming units) in homogenate of kidneys of mice on MRET water compared to control group of mice on regular water following the intra-peritoneal staphylococcal infection. Another study relates to a detailed observation of the effect of MRET activated water with the modified molecular structure, physical and electrodynamic characteristics on metabolic activity and growth of conditionally pathogenic microbiological culture Escherichia coli K-12 (E.coli) and on metabolic activity of microbial associations (similar to microbial associations in the intestine). Activated (MRET) water produced significant changes of E.coli morphology: different shape, color and size of cells, disturbance of process of cellular division. We also observed positive results of MRET water complimentary treatment for HIV patients during the clinical trial. There are recent research data which allows pointing to a similar mode of action for the two viral proteins, suggesting that anti-viral strategy that targets the viral-induced membrane fusion step can be adapted from HIV-1 to SARS-CoV. The stability of virus spike protein structure is based on the overall interactions of van der Walls weak electrodynamic forces and hydrogen bonding. It is obvious, that all biochemical formations of proteins require presence of water molecules in biological systems. The overall observed research data suggest that modification of water - based medium electrodynamic parameters of the human tissues (that are favourable for the homeostasis of the body in the range of physiological “window”) can lead to significant change of van der Walls interactions and hydrogen bonding that result in the inhibition and interruption of virus spike proteins formation. Such scenario obviously disables virus life sequence of attachment and fusion with human cell membranes. The same type of mechanism can be adopted for the inhibition of other lines of pathogenic microorganisms. The studies conducted at AltheaDx Technology, USA confirm that MRET activated water based medium did not affect the morphology of normal PBMC cells on genetic level; it affected the morphology of normal PBMC cells in a positive way increasing their viability. MRET Activated Water is produced with the help of patented in the USA Molecular Resonance Effect Technology (MRET, US Patent # 6022479). We suggest that MRET water consumption by human subjects can lead to physiologically favorable modification of dielectric permittivity and hydrogen bonding of water –based medium in the human body tissues. It can provide the initial human body natural defence against intervention and spread of pathogenic microorganisms

Vaginal Bacterial Profile in Pregnant Women

Summary This study aimed to determine the bacterial profile of vaginal samples from pregnant women and the prevalence of identified microorganisms. Materials and methods: A prospective epidemiological study was conducted on 150 pregnant women admitted to the Clinic of Obstetrics and Gynecology at Dr. G. Stranski University Hospital in Pleven. Vaginal secretion samples were collected from all the 150 women. Direct microscopy of native smears prepared by the wet mount method to detect Trichomonas vaginalis and direct microscopy of Gram-stained smears was performed. Aerobic culture studies were conducted to identify pathogenic bacteria and Sabouraud glucose agar (SGA) to detect the presence of Candida spp. Samples were also collected from 107 of the women for PCR tests for mycoplasma detection. Results: The highest relative share in the study was women aged 21 to 35 years 104 (69.33%). Of all the hospitalized and examined pregnant women, 87 (57.99%) had medical problems during the current pregnancy and postpartum complications, and 63 women (42%) gave birth without accompanying complications. In 86 (57.32%) of the women, bacteria were detected by direct microscopy of Gram-stained smears. Of these, 24 (16%) had gram-negative rods, 28 (18.66%) had gram-positive cocci. In 34 (22.66%), we found gram-negative and gram-variable pleomorphic bacteria. The aerobic culture study revealed microbiological growth in 44 (29.33%) of the women investigated. Conclusions: Studies on the profile of the vaginal microbiota in pregnant women and the spread of pathogenic microorganisms are essential for make prognoses for pregnancy outcome, evaluating the risk of developing a maternal-fetal infection, and discussing options for timely treatment.

Increasing the Shelf Life of Milk by Metal Oxide Nanoparticles and Mild Heat

Background: The spread of pathogenic microorganisms in food and beverage and their resistance to antibiotics have raised major concerns for public health. The aim of this study was to investigate the antimicrobial activity of various metal oxide nanoparticles (NPs) including zinc oxide (ZnO), magnesium oxide (MgO), and iron oxide (Fe2O3) NPs against Staphylococcus aureus (S. aureus) and Escherichia coli (E. coli). Furthermore, the antimicrobial activity of these NPs in milk was studied along with mild heat. Methods: In this experimental study, the antibacterial activity of ZnO, MgO, and Fe2O3 NPs were initially evaluated by minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) and minimum bactericidal concentration (MBC) methods. Later, the antimicrobial effect of these NPs was investigated in milk along with mild heating. To determine the morphological changes in S. aureus and E. coli, electron microscopy scanning was applied before and after the antimicrobial treatments. Results: The MBC and MIC values presented by Fe2O3, ZnO, and MgO NPs against pathogenic bacteria showed that MgO NPs were the most potent substances for inhibiting the growth of S. aureus and E. coli. The results also indicated that use of these NPs had synergistic effects in combination with the heating treatment. Electron microscopy scanning also revealed that treatment with MgO NPs could distort and impair the cell wall of the pathogenic bacteria, leading to the leakage of intracellular components and bacterial death. Conclusion: The results suggest that MgO, ZnO, and Fe2O3 NPs can be applied for industrial food processing as effective antimicrobial compounds to decrease the temperature required for pasteurizing milk.

Adulticidal Activity of Melaleuca alternifolia (Myrtales: Myrtaceae) Essential Oil With High 1,8-Cineole Content Against Stable Flies (Diptera: Muscidae).

The stable fly, Stomoxys calcitrans (Linnaeus 1758), is a hematophagous fly responsible for causing loss of performance in horses, causing losses in cattle productivity, and impacting the animals' health through the spread of pathogenic microorganisms. The objective of this work was to investigate the insecticidal activity of essential oil obtained from Melaleuca alternifolia (Cheel), presenting high 1,8-cineole content, against S. calcitrans adults. Insecticidal activity was determined using surface application methods and exposure to oil impregnated paper. It was observed that treatments at 25 and 50 μg/cm2 (P < 0.05) present fumigant activity through exposure to the impregnated paper, and in the first 15 min of exposure, the mortality rates obtained for these treatments were, respectively (96.6 ± 3.3% and 100%), equivalent to the positive control. Using the superficial application method, the only treatment concentration presenting adulticidal action was 5% (w/v) (P < 0.05). Respective toxicities LC50 (%, w/v) and LC80 for the impregnated paper method were 1.06 ± 0.02 and 1.47 ± 0.17; for the superficial application method, they were 3.82 ± 0.65 and 5.53 ± 0.74. As demonstrated, M. alternifolia essential oil presents adulticidal potential against S. calcitrans.

Protective Microbiota: From Localized to Long-Reaching Co-Immunity

Resident microbiota do not just shape host immunity, they can also contribute to host protection against pathogens and infectious diseases. Previous reviews of the protective roles of the microbiota have focused exclusively on colonization resistance localized within a microenvironment. This review shows that the protection against pathogens also involves the mitigation of pathogenic impact without eliminating the pathogens (i.e., “disease tolerance”) and the containment of microorganisms to prevent pathogenic spread. Protective microorganisms can have an impact beyond their niche, interfering with the entry, establishment, growth, and spread of pathogenic microorganisms. More fundamentally, we propose a series of conceptual clarifications in support of the idea of a “co-immunity,” where an organism is protected by both its own immune system and components of its microbiota.

Identifying virulence factor genes in E. coli in animal houses and their transmission to outside environments

Escherichia coli is a common bacterium in the air; it can affect the health of humans and animals. The carrying status of five primary virulence factor genes in E. coli (i.e., STa, STb, LTa, stx1, and stx2/stx2e) in various animal houses and their spread to the outside environment were investigated by comparing the air inside animal houses with that outside the houses. Multiplex polymerase chain reaction detection of the five genes was performed on samples from five chicken houses, and 117 E. coli isolates were obtained. From five swine houses, 120 were obtained, and from six cow houses, 143 were obtained. Results reveal that E. coli virulence genes derived from animal houses can be propagated via gas exchange from the inside to the outside and, depending on weather conditions, across some distance, resulting in biological pollution and the spread of pathogenic microorganisms. This study of the transmission of environmental microbial aerosols in animal houses has great significance in public health and epidemiology.

Genome Sequence of a Multidrug-Resistant Strain of Bacillus pumilus, CB01, Isolated from the Feces of an American Crow, Corvus brachyrhynchos.

Avian species have the potential to serve as important reservoirs for the spread of pathogenic microorganisms. Here, we report the genome sequence of a drug-resistant strain of Bacillus pumilus, CB01, isolated from the feces of an American crow, Corvus brachyrhynchos.

Benzyldimethyl[3-(miristoylamino)-propyl]ammonium chloride stabilized silver nanoparticles (Argumistin™) in medicine: results of clinical trials for treatment of infectious diseases of dogs and perspectives for humans

AbstractIncreased interest in nanosilver during the last 10 years is mainly explained by the emergence and spread of pathogenic microorganisms with multiple drug resistance, including resistance to last-generation antibiotics. In this article, we for the first time, give a description of large-scale clinical trials of a new nanosilver based antibacterial drug [containing two active components: silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) (10–50 ppm) and benzyldimethyl[3-(miristoylamino)-propyl]ammonium chloride (100 ppm)] registered in Russia in 2015 as a veterinary drug under the brand name Argumistin™. This drug has been approved for application in a diluted dosage form – as eye drops, intranasal drops and orally; it has also been approved for application in a more concentrated dosage form (up to 50 ppm of nanosilver) as ear drops and as an antiseptic during demodicosis and gum disease treatment, open wound treatment, etc. We have registered the high therapeutic effectiveness of Argumistin™ during treatment of infectious conjunctivitis, gingivitis, parodontosis and enteritis of dogs. Application of this antibacterial drug gives considerable (up to 70% in case of periodontal diseases) reduction in the treatment period and prevention of complications. The results of clinical trials in the treatment of infectious diseases of dogs makes Argumistin™ a promising candidate for an effective antibacterial drug for human medicine.

Human adenovirus spread, rainfalls, and the occurrence of gastroenteritis cases in a Brazilian basin.

Climate variables may interfere with the environmental persistence and spread of pathogenic microorganisms. This study aimed to investigate the occurrence of human adenovirus (HAdV) and total and thermotolerant coliforms in treated and untreated water and report gastroenteritis cases in seven cities located in the hydrographic basin of the Sinos River (HBSR), Southern Brazil. The data on water quality from samples collected at catchment areas of HBSR from March to December 2011 were compared with precipitation records, virus detection rates and viral loads, and information on enteric diseases among residents of the region. There was a marked increase in precipitation intensity in April, July, and August and a decrease in May and November. The number of HAdV genome copies (gc) in untreated water ranged from 2.1×10(8) gc/L in June to 7.8×10(1) gc/L in December, and in treated water, from 6.3×10(4) gc/L in September to 4.1×10(1) gc/L in November. The most probable number (MPN) of total coliforms ranged from 5×10(1) MPN/100 mL in December to 2.4×10(5) MPN/100 mL in July, and thermotolerant coliforms ranged from 1×10(1) MPN/100 mL in August to 6.9×10(4) MPN/100 mL in July. A total of 79 hospital admissions due to gastroenteritis were registered in the cities studied. The results for coliforms in untreated water demonstrate deficits in sanitation and wastewater treatment. These findings also indicate a possible relationship between the occurrence of rainfalls after dry periods and an increase in the number of gastroenteritis cases and in HAdV load quantified in surface water collected for conventional potabilization.

The Paradox of Nutrient Fulfilement and Immunity Challenge on Chicken Livestock Development in Tropical Humid Regions

This study aimed to explore the situation of native chickens development in the tropical humid regions especially in Minahasa regions, Nord Sulawesi Indonesia. The survey method was used in 122 farmers selected by sampling purposive design. The results show that in general the farmer in small scale has only under 40 chickens with high risk of dangerous diseases on their animals, exclusively the local nutrition resources are abundantly available in the regions of Minahasa. This condition is related to the availability of feed stuffs derived from plants which are easy to cultivate, and therefore the raw materials are continuously available. If it is associated with animal production such as fish species of marine waters than the poultry farms are guaranteed to have the good quality of feed stuffs. This is also become the reason in this region to develop the poultry farming which the raw materials for rations formulation to fulfil the nutrition needs for the animalslivestock. The biodiversity of plants in this area, also support the fulfilment of nutrients for livestock in the areas. But on the other hand the challenge faced is the high humidity in the tropical humid region allows the development and spread of pathogenic microorganisms that can threaten the poultry farms development in this area.

Emission of bacteria and fungi in the air from wastewater treatment plants - a review

An increase in global population, coupled with intensive development of industry and agriculture, has resulted in the generation and accumulation of large amounts of waste around the world. The spread of pathogenic microorganisms, endotoxins, odours and dust particles in the air is an inevitable consequence of waste production and waste management. Thus, the risk of infections associated with wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) has become of a particular importance in recent decades. Sewage and unstable sludge contain various pathogens such as viruses, bacteria, and human and animal parasites. These microorganisms can be transmitted to the ambient air in wastewater droplets, which are generated during aeration or mechanical moving of the sewage. Bioaerosols generated during wastewater treatment may therefore pose a potential health hazard to workers of these plants or to habitants of their surroundings. The degree of human exposure to airborne bacteria, fungi, endotoxin and other allergens may vary significantly depending upon the type and the capacity of a plant, kind of the facilities, performed activities and meteorological conditions.

Detecção de Staphylococcus aureus utilizando a técnica de REP-PCR no monitoramento da qualidade do leite de cabra

Este estudo foi realizado com o objetivo de aplicar a técnica de REP-PCR no monitoramento da qualidade do leite de cabra por meio da detecção de Staphylococcus aureus em amostras de mãos de ordenhador, tetos das cabras, leite, ordenhadeira e água para estabelecimento e implantação do sistema de Análise de Perigos e Pontos Críticos de Controle (APPCC). Verificaram-se vários fingerprints de todos os isolados coletados das diferentes fontes estudadas (mãos de ordenhador, tetos das cabras, leite, ordenhadeira e água). Observaram-se comportamentos muito similares das bandas, o que indica que os isolados podem ser relatados como clones epidemiológicos. As mãos do ordenhador caracterizaram-se como ponto crítico de controle, pois se destacaram como iniciador de contaminação nas amostras Staphylococcus aureus. A técnica demonstrou ser eficiente para a análise da similaridade entre indivíduos da espécie Staphylococcus aureus e, portanto, constitui ferramenta útil para investigação de falhas no manejo e na busca de controle mais eficiente para evitar ou reduzir a disseminação de microrganismos patogênicos causadores de sérias enfermidades em humanos e animais, que muitas vezes podem ser transmitidas por produtos como o leite e seus derivados.

Methods and technologies for handling mortality losses

Poultry carcasses resulting from death by natural occurrences at high levels of production represents a tremendous amount of organic matter that requires environmentally and biologically safe disposal or utilization. Methods for disposal of poultry carcasses include burial, incineration, composting, and rendering. Burial pits used for carcass disposal pose concerns that include the decline in ground water quality where pits are located and residue remaining in pits after years of use. Burial is no longer permitted in some poultry producing areas of the United States except in the case of catastrophic loss. Incineration is a biologically safe method of disposal; however, it tends to be slow and expensive even when highly efficient incinerators are used. Burial and incineration impose environmental concerns that are becoming less acceptable. Research has been conducted during the past decade in support of composting for carcass disposal. When poultry carcass composting is properly conducted, disease-causing microorganisms do not survive the process and the composted material can be used as a soil amendment. Composting is environmentally sound, relatively inexpensive, and has gained widespread acceptance. Rendering carcasses into a protein by-product meal is an alternative in the United States, but is not permitted in the European Union. Poultry carcasses can be removed from the farm, but the spread of pathogenic microorganisms during routine pickup and transportation to a rendering facility may present a substantial threat. Refrigeration, principally freezing, has potential for short-term storage prior to rendering, but costs of operation and transportation need careful consideration. Lactic acid fermentation of poultry carcasses prior to transportation stabilizes carcass deterioration and minimizes pathogen threat. Fermentation allows for long-term on-farm storage of poultry carcasses, reduced transportation costs and results in a usable feed ingredient. When coupled with rendering, fermentation is an excellent alternative for storing and transporting pathogen-free poultry carcasses. All methods that allow for the environmentally safe and bio-secure disposal of poultry carcasses should be considered. No single method will completely solve the problem.