Spray Flamelet Research Articles

Large eddy simulation of spray combustion using the spray flamelet/progress variable model: Further extension and validation

The classical flamelet combustion model assumes that the combustion system consists of two homogeneous inlet streams for oxidizer and fuel. It usually requires extension and validation for configurations with different types of inlet streams. In the current work, the recently developed two-phase spray flamelet/progress variable (TSFPV) model is further extended and validated on the configurations of Delft spray flame AII and Sydney piloted ethanol spray flame EtF2, representing the systems with a single inlet and three inlets, respectively. The strategies for generating the spray flamelet library are adjusted, and an extended model is developed for modeling flame AII. Large eddy simulations of these two flames are conducted to evaluate the accuracy of the TSFPV model. The results of flame AII show that some droplets penetrate into the flame zone, and significant droplets/flame interactions occur. The flame exhibits a typical double flame structure. The predictions of gas phase temperature are in good agreement with the experimental measurements, which indicates that the current model can better consider the influence of droplet evaporation and the temperature reduction caused by interphase heat loss. The results of flame EtF2 also achieve good agreement with experimental data according to radial profiles of axial droplet velocities and gas phase temperature. Overall, the TSFPV model is well validated and exhibits sound performance on different flame configurations, indicating its widespread applicability and generalizability.

LES of a turbulent lifted methanol spray flame using a novel spray flamelet/progress variable model

Turbulent spray flames are complex combustion configurations and are difficult to be accurately simulated. In this paper, we focus on further development and validation of the two-phase spray flamelet/progress variable (TSFPV) model, which is first proposed in our previous work and shows sound performance because it is able to consider the effect of droplet evaporation on the flamelet structure. A spray evaporation source term (SEST) model is improved in the present work to model the evaporation sources and is applied to the calculation of one-dimensional laminar counterflow flames to generate the spray flamelet library. The SEST model is validated on the configuration of two-dimensional counterflow spray flames, and the a priori and a posteriori results show good agreement with the solutions using the Lagrangian particle tracking (LPT) method. The effect of pre-vaporized fuel vapor is further considered in the spray flamelet library, in which both the spray and gaseous flame regimes are covered. The TSFPV model is well validated on the configuration of the laminar mixing layer by comparing the a priori and a posteriori results with detailed chemistry (DC) solutions. Large Eddy Simulation (LES) of the Sydney turbulent lifted methanol spray flame Mt2A is conducted using the TSFPV model. The flame lift-off is correctly captured and the final predicted lift-off height is very close to the experimental value. The predicted mean droplet velocities show good agreement with experimental measurements, and the rms velocities agree well with the experimental data at downstream locations with a late jet breakup. The droplet size increases along the downstream direction and this trend is well reproduced in the current simulation, though the local peak value of droplet size near the upstream shear layer is not well captured. The central jet temperature at upstream locations is also well predicted by the TSFPV model. Overall, the results show good agreement with the experimental measurements, which illustrates the potential of the TSFPV model for spray combustion modeling.

Spray Flamelet Modeling of Turbulent Two-Phase Reacting Flows with Multi-Component Fuel in a Lean Direct Injection Combustor

ABSTRACT Towards the numerical evaluation of the performance in aero-engine combustors, implementing detailed reaction kinetics into the large eddy simulation (LES) cost-effectively is highly desirable. In this work, a newly-developed spray flamelet model is combined with a four-component jet fuel surrogate model to allow integration of the detailed kinetics in the open-source CFD code. The spray flamelet approach (SFGM) can take into account the non-adiabatic effect caused by the evaporating spray and can directly reflect the preferential evaporation, as well as multiple combustion regimes present in complex spray combustion systems. The coupling of the SFGM-LES approach is assessed by comparison with the experimental data from a Lean Direct Injection (LDI) combustor, where the real aviation kerosene, Jet-A, was utilized. The SFGM-LES approach well predicts the experimental statistics in both gas and liquid phases. It is capable of capturing the rich physics and complex flame structures, including the preferential evaporation effect and the multi-regime combustion phenomenon. The present work demonstrates that the complex nature of multi-components and the multiple-combustion regimes in the two-phase combustion can be directly included in the spray flamelet approach, and thus this model can provide new insights into the turbulent spray combustion phenomena.

Large Eddy Simulation of a Turbulent Dilute Ethanol Flame Using the Two-Phase Spray Flamelet Generated Manifold Approach

ABSTRACT A recently developed spray Flamelet Generated Manifolds (SFGM) approach has been extended to include turbulence–chemistry interactions for studies of turbulent spray flames based on Eulerian–Lagrangian multiphase Large Eddy Simulation (LES). The Eulerian–Eulerian two-fluid formulation of the SFGM was extended to include the mixture fraction variance to construct a 4-D manifold library. The effect of heat loss due to droplet evaporation was considered in the SFGM tabulation, and the SFGM approach was evaluated using the Sydney ethanol spray flame experimental database. The two-phase interaction was investigated from complete analyses of the continuous- and dispersed-phase dynamics. Comparisons between the numerical results and the experimental data indicate that the SFGM formulated from counterflow spray flames can produce a good agreement with the gaseous flow field and the dispersed-phase statistics. By comparing the results in terms of the temperature field with other existing models, it can be inferred that the discrepancies between the flamelet-based results and the experimental data may not depend on the choice of the flamelet approach but on the modeling of the turbulence/chemistry interaction model. A Beta-function of the normalized progress variable can be an alternative to improve the temperature predictions. Moreover, using a well-designed definition of the progress variable by finding the optimal weights of several appropriate species is another possible path to improve the predictions.

A priori and a posteriori studies of a novel spray flamelet tabulation methodology considering evaporation effects

Turbulent spray flames are complicated combustion configurations involving many coupled processes including atomization, evaporation, mixing, chemical reactions, etc. Different flamelet models with intrinsically high computational efficiency have been proposed and extended to model spray combustion. One popular approach for flamelet modeling is based on the gaseous flamelet library, but the accuracy is not guaranteed for combustion with gas–liquid two-phase flows. The other approach is based on the spray flamelet library that takes into account the effects of evaporation on the flamelet structure, but problems related to the non-monotonicity of mixture fraction occur. We develop a novel tabulated spray flamelet/progress variable (TSFPV) model in the present work. An additional mixture fraction Zcarr (named carrier mixture fraction) is defined to describe the mixing process, and it proves to avoid the problem of non-monotonicity of the spray flame structure. The empirical formulas of mass and energy evaporation source terms are obtained and then applied to one-dimensional flames in order to create the flamelet library considering evaporation effects. The developed TSFPV model is validated via simulations of laminar spray counterflow flame and turbulent spray reactive jet in cross-flow, where strong interactions between spray droplets and flame occur and the traditional Flamelet/Progress Variable (FPV) model fails. The a priori and a posteriori studies of TSFPV model are conducted, and the model shows to achieve good agreement with the detailed chemistry solutions. The double-reaction spray flame structure can be captured correctly. The TSFPV model can also give sound quantitative predictions for temperature and minor intermediate products (such as OH, C2H2, and C2H4).

Development of a Multiphase Flamelet Generated Manifold for Spray Combustion Simulations

Abstract In this study, a model flame of quasi-one-dimensional (1D) counterflow spray flame has been developed. The two-dimensional (2D) multiphase convection-diffusion-reaction equations have been simplified to one dimension using similarity reduction under the Eulerian framework. This model flame is able to directly account for nonadiabatic heat loss, preferential evaporation, as well as multiple combustion regimes present in realistic spray combustion processes. A spray flamelet library was generated based on the model flame. To retrieve data from the spray flamelet library, the enthalpy was used as an additional controlling variable to represent the interphase heat transfer, while the mixing and chemical reaction processes were mapped to the mixture fraction and the progress variable. The spray flamelet generated manifolds (SFGM) approach was validated against the results from the direct integration of finite rate chemistry as a benchmark. The SFGM approach was found to give a better performance in terms of predictions of temperature and species mass fractions.

Structural analysis and regime diagrams of laminar counterflow spray flames with low-temperature chemistry

The understanding of spray combustion is a complex scientific problem, as it involves the interaction between evaporation, convection, diffusion, and chemistry. The focus of this study is to examine the effects of chemistry, in particular the low-temperature chemistry, on the structure of canonical counterflow spray flames at relatively low strain rate conditions. Parametric studies using a Eulerian formulation are carried out for monodisperse n-dodecane counterflow spray flames, in order to analyze the sensitivity of the flame structure to strain rate and droplet diameter over a wide range of equivalence ratios. These results reveal complex and multi-modal spray-flame structures that exhibit collocated, distributed, and cool flames. For the collocated flame, the presence of single and multiple low-temperature reaction zones is identified, which results from the evaporation and low-temperature chemistry interaction. The impact of low-temperature chemistry on the distributed flame is not pronounced. For low strain-rate conditions, the presence of a weak cool flame without high-temperature reaction zones is reported. Regime diagrams with respect to Stokes number and equivalence ratio are constructed, identifying distinctly different flame structures. By independently varying the strain rate and changing the droplet diameter, qualitatively similar but quantitatively different regime diagrams are obtained due to the lack of intrinsic self-similarity of the spray flamelet solution.

Large eddy simulation of a partially pre-vaporized ethanol reacting spray using the multiphase DTF/flamelet model

Spray reactive flow finds application in various technical devices, and due to the complex nature, their optimization is very challenging, requiring proper modeling of turbulence/chemistry interactions as well as of the contribution from spray evaporation. This work presents a study of sub-grid scale combustion models, where relevant assumptions on multiphase coupling and their effects are analyzed in detail. For this purpose, two different flamelet approaches, i.e. progress variable spray flamelet and multi-regime gas flamelet are examined in an implementation coupled with the dynamic thickened flame model, along with which the impact of inlet inhomogeneities condition and droplet evaporation taking into account internal temperature gradient is also investigated. The numerical evaluation is carried out in large eddy simulations of a benchmark ethanol spray flame with partial pre-vaporization, where an Eulerian-Lagrangian numerical framework is adopted. The analysis demonstrated that the flame dynamics under consideration is governed by a close coupling between spray evaporation, turbulent dispersion and unsteady flame propagation at upstream shear layers. Results show that the spray flamelets built from counterflow partially-premixed spray flames achieved a better agreement with experiments, capturing the flame structure in terms of gas-phase temperature, OH mass fraction as well as spray statistics.

Closure of the scalar dissipation rate in the spray flamelet equations through a transport equation for the gradient of the mixture fraction

In this paper, the closure of the Scalar Dissipation Rate (SDR) in the Spray Flamelet Equations (SFE) is addressed. For this purpose, the gradient gξ of the mixture fraction ξ is used instead of the SDR itself. A transport equation for this variable is derived and transformed from physical into mixture fraction space. Moreover, the spray flamelet equations of the species mass fractions and of gas temperature are re-derived in terms of gξ for consistency, considering differential diffusion effects.Numerical simulations of different axi-symmetric counterflow ethanol/air flames are carried out in physical space using a well established model and the results are employed for the validation and analysis of the newly proposed set of SFE. In particular, a non-premixed gas flame is established as a base case and then perturbed by means of different mono-disperse sprays injected from the air side of the configuration.In the newly proposed SFE, two different kind of unclosed quantities appear: The spatial gradient of the product of gas velocity and gas density, a^, and sources of mass and energy due to evaporation. In the present work, different alternatives for the closure of a^ are presented and analyzed, where the following approaches are proposed: 1) Introducing a stream-like function and using the global mass and axial momentum balance equations to derive an expression for a^ and 2) Assuming a constant value for this variable. Moreover, two different constant values of a^ are considered: its value at the stoichiometric mixture fraction and its value at the air side of the counterflow configuration. The evaporation-related source terms are closed through projections of the numerical results from physical into mixture fraction space. The suitability of the proposed approaches is tested in terms of the ability of the SFE of properly predicting both gξ and the spray flamelet structure of the reference counterflow flames. Additionally, the contributions of the individual terms in the SFE are analyzed, with special focus on the effects of evaporation. The validation confirms that the new set of SFE accurately reproduces the counterflow profiles when the stream-like function is employed, whereas employing the value of a^ at stoichiometry still adequately describes the relative importance of the different physical and chemical phenomena taking place in the flames studied (the contribution of the different terms in the SFE), even when the flame structure itself shows non-negligible deviations. Finally, using the value of a^ at the left inflow boundary leads to poor predictions in most situations.The present results represent a significant advance towards the development of a comprehensive and self-contained spray flamelet theory.

Partially premixed flamelet in LES of acetone spray flames

An effective partially premixed flamelet model for large eddy simulation (LES) of turbulent spray combustion is formulated. Different flame regimes are identified with a flame index defined by budget terms in a 2-D multi-phase flamelet formulation, and the application in LES of partially pre-vaporized spray flames shows a favorable agreement with experiments. Simulations demonstrate that, compared to the conventional single-regime flamelets, the present partially premixed flamelet formulation shows its ability in capturing the subgrid regime transitions, yielding a well prediction of peak gas temperature and the downstream flame spreading. A propagating premixed flame front is found coupled with a trailing diffusion burning through the spray evaporation, and the spray effect on regime discrimination is manifested with transport budget analysis. A two-phase regime indicator is then proposed, by which the evaporation-dictated regime is properly described. Its intended use will rely on both gas and spray flamelet structures.

A spray flamelet/progress variable approach combined with a transported joint PDF model for turbulent spray flames

A spray flamelet/progress variable approach is developed for use in spray combustion with partly pre-vaporised liquid fuel, where a laminar spray flamelet library accounts for evaporation within the laminar flame structures. For this purpose, the standard spray flamelet formulation for pure evaporating liquid fuel and oxidiser is extended by a chemical reaction progress variable in both the turbulent spray flame model and the laminar spray flame structures, in order to account for the effect of pre-vaporised liquid fuel for instance through use of a pilot flame. This new approach is combined with a transported joint probability density function (PDF) method for the simulation of a turbulent piloted ethanol/air spray flame, and the extension requires the formulation of a joint three-variate PDF depending on the gas phase mixture fraction, the chemical reaction progress variable, and gas enthalpy. The molecular mixing is modelled with the extended interaction-by-exchange-with-the-mean (IEM) model, where source terms account for spray evaporation and heat exchange due to evaporation as well as the chemical reaction rate for the chemical reaction progress variable. This is the first formulation using a spray flamelet model considering both evaporation and partly pre-vaporised liquid fuel within the laminar spray flamelets. Results with this new formulation show good agreement with the experimental data provided by A.R. Masri, Sydney, Australia. The analysis of the Lagrangian statistics of the gas temperature and the OH mass fraction indicates that partially premixed combustion prevails near the nozzle exit of the spray, whereas further downstream, the non-premixed flame is promoted towards the inner rich-side of the spray jet since the pilot flame heats up the premixed inner spray zone. In summary, the simulation with the new formulation considering the reaction progress variable shows good performance, greatly improving the standard formulation, and it provides new insight into the local structure of this complex spray flame.

Transported Joint Probability Density Function Simulation of Turbulent Spray Flames Combined with a Spray Flamelet Model Using a Transported Scalar Dissipation Rate

ABSTRACTNumerical simulations of a turbulent ethanol/air spray flame are performed using a combined formulation of a joint gas mixture fraction-enthalpy probability density function (PDF) and a spray flamelet model, where the scalar dissipation rate of the mixture fraction is described with a transport equation. Spray evaporation is included in the flamelet model through the pre-calculation of counterflowing laminar spray flames with a detailed reaction mechanism of 38 species and 337 elementary reactions for ethanol/air combustion. A transport equation for the mean scalar dissipation rate of the mixture fraction is derived, taking into account the spray evaporation. The computed results are compared with the experimental data provided by A. Masri, University of Sydney, Australia. All major spray flame characteristics, including the Sauter mean diameter, the droplet velocity, and its turbulent fluctuations as well as gas temperature, generally show good agreement with experiments. Different models for the scalar dissipation rate of the mixture fraction are not significantly different for the flame under consideration except for inside the chemical reaction zone, where the new model shows some improvement compared to the experiment.

Derivation and Evaluation of a Multi-regime Spray Flamelet Model

Abstract The formulation of a comprehensive flamelet model to consider detailed chemical reaction mechanisms in the simulation of turbulent spray flames is a very challenging task due to the inherent multi-regime structure of spray flames. Non-premixed, premixed, and evaporation-controlled combustion regimes may be found in a single spray flame. Recently, attempts have been made to extend classical single regime flamelet models to more complex situations, where at least two combustion regimes coexist. The objective of this work is to develop a framework in which two-regime flamelet models can be described and combined in order to advance the development of a comprehensive flamelet model for turbulent spray flames. For this purpose, a set of spray flamelet equations in terms of the mixture fraction and a reaction progress variable is derived, which includes the evaporation, characterizing the spray flames, and which describes all combustion regimes appearing in spray flames. The two-regime and single regime flamelet equations available in the literature are retrieved from these multi-dimensional spray flamelet equations as special cases. The derived set of spray flamelet equations is then used to evaluate structures of laminar ethanol/air spray flames in the counterflow configuration in order to determine the significance of different combustion regimes. The present study concerns spray flames with no pre-vaporized liquid in the oxidizing gas phase, and it is found that only non-premixed and evaporation-controlled combustion regimes exist, so that premixed effects may be neglected. Moreover, an exact transport equation for the scalar dissipation rate is derived, which explicitly takes spray evaporation and detailed transport into account. This equation is then used to evaluate assumptions commonly adopted in the literature. The results show that the spatial variation of the mean molecular weight of the mixture may be neglected in the formulation of the mixture fraction, but it may be significant for its scalar dissipation rate. The assumption of unity Lewis number may lead to non-physical values of the scalar dissipation rate of the mixture fraction, whereas the use of a mass-averaged diffusion coefficient of the mixture is a good approximation for the spray flames under investigation.

A simple spray–flamelet model: Influence of ambient temperature and fuel concentration, vaporisation source and fuel injection position

This work presents an analysis of the external structure of diffusion flames established with liquid fuel vaporisation (ethanol) in a counterflow configuration. The model assumes that part of the fuel is in the liquid phase (droplets) dispersed in the gas phase, which presents an initial fuel mass fraction. The spray–flamelet model is distinguished from the flamelet model by the presence of droplets in the reaction zone. There is no relative velocity between the droplets and the gas phase and the droplets vaporise completely before the stagnation plane. The mathematical description of the dilute spray–flamelet is made by the conservation equations with source terms corresponding to the fuel droplets. In the fuel species conservation equation, the source term has a strength proportional to the droplets vaporisation rate. In the energy conservation equation, the source term (heat sink) has a strength proportional to the product of the droplet vaporisation rate and the latent heat. The model exhibits a parameter defined as the spray combustion parameter M that combines the chemical reaction, flow field and spray properties involved in the problem. An analysis is performed to determine how the dilute spray–flamelet is affected by the liquid fuel injection position, the spray combustion parameter M and the temperature and fuel mass fraction Φ in the incoming fuel stream. A uniform distribution is considered to describe the droplets. The results confirm the expected influence of the spray combustion parameter M and the ambient temperature on the spray–flamelet. Effects on the temperature profile can be observed on the spray–flamelet by varying the liquid fuel injection position and the fuel mass fraction Φ in the incoming fuel stream. The results also indicate that, depending on the value of M, there is a value of Φ above which a burning regime is imposed that is almost totally controlled by the incoming fuel stream conditions.

New spray flamelet equations considering evaporation effects in the mixture fraction space

New flamelet equations for spray combustion considering evaporation effects are derived in the mixture fraction space based on the instantaneous Eulerian transport equations for gas phase and Lagrangian descriptions for droplets. The novelty of these equations lies in some source terms related to evaporation which were neglected in previous studies. The influences of spray evaporation on flamelet structures are demonstrated by solving the steady spray flamelet equations. It is found that the evaporation source term may shift or even create new reaction zones, increase the chemical reaction rate, and change the profiles of scalars in the mixture fraction space. These comprehensive effects should be included in future spray combustion modeling.

Structures of Laminar Methane/Nitrogen/Oxygen, Methane/Oxygen and Methane/Liquid Oxygen Counterflow Flames for Cryogenic Conditions and Elevated Pressures

Abstract The understanding of physical and chemical processes occurring in many applications in sciences and engineering is important to ensure stability and efficiency of their performance. Examples are the combustion process in direct-injection engines, gas turbine combustors, and liquid rocket propulsion systems. The objective of this paper is the numerical investigation of laminar methane/air and methane/oxygen flames where different mixtures of nitrogen and oxygen in the oxidizer stream are studied. Moreover, liquid oxygen (LOX) spray flames with carrier gas methane directed against a methane stream are investigated in the counterflow configuration. These structures may be used in (spray) flamelet library or flamelet generated manifold computations of turbulent combustion. The mathematical model is based on two-dimensional equations which are transferred into one-dimensional equations using a similarity transformation. The numerical simulation concerns the axisymmetric configuration with an adaptive numerical grid for the gas phase. Detailed models of all relevant processes are employed; in particular, a detailed chemical reaction mechanism is used which comprises 35 species including C2 involving 294 elementary reactions. The thermodynamic data for CH4 and O2 below 300K are implemented for normal and elevated pressures. For the CH4/air and an oxygenated flame, the present results are compared with results from literature. The CH4/O2 flame is studied for elevated pressures up to 2MPa. Extinction conditions are evaluated for use in turbulent flamelet computations. It is shown that oxygen dilution, pressure, and strain rate have a pronounced effect on flame structure. The use of liquid compared to gaseous oxygen strongly affects flame structure.

Laser-Based Experimental and Monte Carlo PDF Numerical Investigation of an Ethanol/Air Spray Flame

A turbulent ethanol spray flame is characterized through quantitative experiments using laser-based imaging techniques. The experimental data set is used to validate a numerical code for the simulation of spray combustion. The spray burner has been constructed to facilitate the computational treatment of the experiment; in particular the spray flame is stabilized without a bluff body or a pilot flame. The experiments include spatially resolved measurements of droplet sizes (Mie/LIF-dropsizing and PDA), droplet velocity (PDA), liquid-phase temperature (two-color LIF temperature imaging with Rhodamine B) and gas-phase temperature (multi-line NO-LIF temperature imaging). The measurements close to the nozzle exit are used to determine the initial conditions for numerical simulations. A novel probability density function (PDF) method is applied to calculate the development of the spray flame. A joint mixture fraction and enthalpy PDF is formulated. Its transport equation is modeled and solved using a Monte-Carlo method. A detailed ethanol/air combustion mechanism consisting of 38 species and 337 elementary reactions is implemented through the spray flamelet model enabling the prediction of pollutant emission in spray flames. Good agreement with the experimental data is found for the gas temperature. The numerical predictions for the liquid-phase temperature are in reasonable agreement with the experimental data. The flame structure with two reaction zones is compared with other spray flames, and it is analyzed with the help of the experimental and numerical results. The formation mechanism of such a structure is revealed.

Simulation of a turbulent spray flame using coupled PDF gas phase and spray flamelet modeling

A joint mixture fraction–enthalpy probability density function (PDF) is proposed for the simulation of turbulent spray flames. The PDF transport equation is deduced and modeled. The interaction-by-exchange-with-the-mean (IEM) model that has been developed for gas-phase flows is extended to describe molecular mixing in nonreactive and reactive spray flows. The joint PDF transport equation is solved by a hybrid finite-volume and Lagrangian Monte Carlo method. Standard spray and turbulence models are used to describe the gas phase and the liquid phase. A turbulent methanol/air spray flame is simulated using the present method. Detailed chemistry is implemented through the spray flamelet model. The precalculated spray flamelet library for methanol/air combustion comprises 23 species and 168 elementary reactions. Thus, the model is capable of predicting the formation of radicals and of pollutants. Different values for the model constant C ϕ in the IEM model are tested. The numerical results for the gas velocity, the gas temperature, and the mass fraction of methanol vapor are compared with experimental data in the literature. Good agreement with experiment is obtained when C ϕ = 2.0 . Marginal PDFs of mixture fraction, enthalpy, and gas temperature are presented. The computed PDFs of mixture fraction are compared with the presumed standard β function and modified β function. The results show that the standard β function fails to reproduce bimodal shapes observed in transported PDF computation, while the modified β function, fits the computed PDFs very well. Moreover, joint PDFs of mixture fraction and enthalpy are presented and analyzed. The enthalpy and mixture fraction are strongly correlated. The samples that deviate from the linear correlation are due to the energy consumption of local spray evaporation.

Experimental and numerical characterization of a turbulent spray flame

A turbulent ethanol spray flame is characterized through quantitative experiments using laser-based imaging techniques. The data set is used to validate a numerical code for the simulation of spray combustion. The spray burner has been designed to generate a stable flame without the use of a bluff body or a pilot flame facilitating numerical simulations. The experiments include spatially-resolved measurements of droplet sizes (Mie/LIF-dropsizing and PDA), droplet velocity (PDA), liquid-phase temperature (2-color LIF temperature imaging with Rhodamine B) and gas-phase temperature (multi-line NO-LIF temperature imaging). The measurements close to the nozzle exit are used to determine the initial conditions for numerical simulations. An Eulerian–Lagrangian model including spray flamelet modeling is applied to calculate the development of the spray. Good agreement with the experimental data is found. The experimental data set and the numerical results will be published on a website to allow other groups to evaluate their experimental and/or numerical data.