Spousal Physical Violence Research Articles

Prevalence and risk factors of physical violence against husbands: evidence from India.

As the proportion of women being victims of spousal violence in India is higher than men, laws are usually framed to safeguard women. However, men who have experienced physical spousal violence are not unheard of. The study aims to provide the nationwide prevalence of physical violence against husbands and the risk factors for such violence, using large-scale nationally representative 'National Family Health Survey' (NFHS 4) data. The study used descriptive, bivariate, logistic, and multilevel regression models with a random intercept clustering within states and households to explain the physical violence against husband. Sample size for the analysis was 62,716 currently married women aged 15-49 years. Findings revealed that in most of the states of India, physical spousal violence has increased over time. Behavioural characteristics like marital control, alcoholism, and childhood experience of parental violence have a consistent and strong role in explaining the experience of physical violence across states. With age, experience of violence against husbands increases. Differences in socio-economic characteristics do not have unidirectional effect on violence experienced by husbands across regions of India. Working women who are earning cash and having access to mobile phones perpetrate more physical violence in selected regions. Education shows a gradient on such violence perpetration, indicating that only after achieving a certain level of education, chances of violence reduce. Regionally contrasting social and economic risk factors in explaining violence strengthen the argument that violence is space and culture-specific, and development alone may not resolve violence unless the system is addressing the behavioural aspects. There is a need for supporting men experiencing domestic violence within the existing system facilities. Revisiting the present domestic violence laws and programmes for inclusivity is the need of the hour.

Determinants of spousal physical violence against women in Zambia: a multilevel analysis

BackgroundViolence against women and girls is a major public health issue, a violation of human rights, and is linked to a number of harmful effects on one’s physical, mental, sexual, and reproductive health. Studies conducted in other parts of sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) suggest that there is an association between contextual factors and experience of intimate partner violence. However, in Zambia, this association is not well documented. Thus, this study was conducted to examine how individual and community-level characteristics influence spousal violence against women in Zambia.MethodsData from the most recent Zambia Demographic and Health Survey conducted in 2018 was used. A sample of 7,358 ever-married women aged 15–49 years was used in the analysis. Two level multilevel binary logistic regression models were employed to examine the association between individual and contextual-level factors and experience of spousal violence.ResultsThe prevalence of spousal physical violence against women in Zambia was 21.1% [95% CI, 19.8, 22.5]. Women aged 15–19 [aOR = 2.36, 95% CI = 1.34–4.14] and 20–24 [aOR = 2.11, 95% CI = 1.38–3.22], who did not own mobile phone [aOR = 1.36, 95% CI = 1.10–1.69], and had low decision making autonomy [aOR = 1.24, 95% CI = 1.01–1.54] were more likely experience spousal physical violence. Furthermore, communities which had a low proportion of women with decision making power [aOR = 1.66, 95% CI = 1.26–2.19] were more likely experience spousal physical violence. Additionally, women whose partners’ drank alcohol [aOR = 2.81, 95% CI = 2.30–3.45] and those whose partners exhibited jealous behaviour [aOR = 2.38, 95% CI = 1.88–3.21] were more likely to experience spousal physical violence.ConclusionBoth individual and community-level factors influenced spousal physical violence in Zambia. Integrating community level factors when designing interventions to address gender-based would be key to reduce women’s vulnerability to gender based violence in the country. There is need to re-evaluate and re-strategize current strategies being implemented to address gender based violence in the country to make them context specific.

Reduction in prevalence of spousal physical violence against women in India: evidence from three national surveys

Spousal physical violence (PV) against women is considered to be major health issue in developing countries. Lifetime physical violence is a composite outcome consists of hit, kick, beat, slap and threatened with weapon, perpetrated by the husband. The study aims to examine changes in prevalence and specific risk factors for PV from 1998 to 2016 in India. This study analyzed data from a cross sectional epidemiological survey in 1998–1999, NFHS-3 (2005–2006) and NFHS-4 (2015–2016) data. There was a significant decline of about 10% (95% CI: 8.8%–11.1%) in PV. Major risk factors for change in PV were husband’s use of alcohol, illiteracy and socio-economic status of the household. The Protection of Women from Domestic Violence Act may have played a role in reducing the PV. Even though there was a decline in PV, actions have to be implemented from the root level to ensure women empowerment.

Domestic violence in indian women: status of husbands’ alcohol consumption as a determinant factor

Abstract Background Domestic violence continues to be a major public health issue that affects millions of individuals worldwide. According to the 2015-2016 India National Family Health Survey, 33% of married women had been victims of spousal physical, sexual, or emotional violence. It was also revealed that spousal abuse differs depending on the level of the husband's alcohol consumption. In this case, determining the link between this consumption and domestic violence is critical. Methods The effects of husbands’ alcohol use on the occurrence of domestic violence and associated risk factors were investigated using data from the 2015-2016 India Individual Record Database (DHS) A binomial logistic regression model was used for the analysis. Results 62554 married women aged 15 to 49 were chosen for this study, of which 31.2% have experienced some form of marital violence. Women with husbands who drink alcohol account for 31% of the sample, with 49.5% of those committing domestic violence against their wives. In a multivariate analysis, women whose spouses drink have a 3.11 times higher chance (p < 0.01; adjOR=3.11, 95%CI 3-3.23) of experiencing domestic violence than women whose husbands don't drink. Conclusions The effect of the husband's alcohol use on the occurrence of domestic violence can be used to guide evidence-based targeted intervention. Key messages

Wellbeing, occupation, money, education and knowledge: a descriptive study of NFHS-4 data comparing Maharashtra and national data on the wellbeing, occupation, money, education and knowledge parameters

Background: ‘Women rights’ is a contentious social issue. Well-being, occupation, money, education and knowledge (W. O. M. E. N.), are the basic parameters based on which a women’s status in the society depends. Her wellbeing shows us her health, her occupation and education help us understand how she gets treated in her family and her capability to take future life decisions. Her involvement in the family money, her income, shows her economic understanding. Her knowledge, on her reproductive and sexual health, on domestic abuse shows her awareness on these issues and reflects on her personal experiences as well.Methods: A retrospective study was conducted on NFHS-4 data (with permission from DHS) using Maharashtra and India data for analysis of W. O. M. E. N.’s characteristics.Results: The results showed that p value for all W. O. M. E. N.’s characteristics in association with Maharashtra and India values was found to be highly significant.Conclusions: the 904 (19.2%) women in Maharashtra said that beating was justified when wife goes out without telling the husband, whereas compared to India statistics, 28002 (23.8%) women feel the same. In a study by Jeyaseelan et al a cross-sectional study was conducted on 9938 women surveyed, 26% reported experiencing spousal physical violence during the lifetime of their marriage

Abused but “Not Insulted”: Understanding Intersectionality in Symbolic Violence in India

The fourth round of the Indian National Family Health Survey shows that the proportion of women who felt that wife-beating was justified exceeded the proportion of men who felt so in India. We find that more than one-fourth of the women in India who have experienced spousal bodily violence say that they never felt insulted by the action of their husbands. We hypothesise that this absence of the feeling of insult despite facing physical violence indicates the presence of symbolic violence. This form of violence manifests through symbolic channels and cannot take place without the complicity of the victim. Feminist writing in India has argued that gender needs to be considered at its intersection with class and caste to understand how the control of female sexuality relates to the organisation of production, sanctioned and legitimised by ideologies. We run instrumental variable probit regression of the likelihood of having felt insulted on the woman’s economic class and social group affiliation. We find that once the experience of facing spousal physical violence and other background characteristics are controlled for, women from non-poor households are significantly less likely to have felt insulted, as compared to poor women. Furthermore, compared to women from most other social groups along the intersections of class and caste, non-poor upper caste women are less likely to report insult.

Vulnerability of Gender Based Physical Spousal Domestic Violence in Benue State, Nigeria

The study accessed the vulnerability of gender based physical spousal domestic violence in Benue State, Nigeria. The study adopted the secondary data from the Nigeria Demographic and Health Survey (NDHS) (2018), conducted by National Population Commission and analysed using the Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) version 20. Information's sorted were categorized, summarized and presented in exploratory formats, frequency tables and charts. The results revealed that (77.4%) of the respondents had experienced physical violence of different forms. The study also revealed the perceived spouse's reasons for physical violence which include suspected infidelity (18.4%) womanizing by husband (18.4%) disobedience (15.3%) husband taking alcohol (9.3%), poverty (9.1%) and inability to give birth (suspected infertility) 23 (9.1%). The finding further revealed that many women were ever slapped by their husbands (16.4%) while some were threw something at (8.4%), some were kicked and dragged by their husbands, some were beaten (16.1%) while others (19.7%) were pushed and shook. However, only a few (2.9%) were threatened or attacked with a weapon. The study also found that (61.3%) of the married women who experienced spousal physical violence in the area equally sustained different forms of injuries which include: cuts/ bruises (40.9%), eye injuries (23.1%), dislocations/fracture (12.4%), deep wounds (14.5%) and broken teeth (4.3%). The study finally established that women who experienced spousal physical violence seek and have help from their own family (71%), their husband’s family (21%) and religious leader (8%). The study recommended gender based violence awareness campaigns and legal protection of women in the state to protect the right of women and reduce the vulnerability of physical violence against women in the area.

THE EFFECTIVENESS OF MODULE DIGITAL YOUTH (DY) AS YOUTH EMPOWERMENT THROUGH CRIME AWARENESS: A CASE STUDY OF SOUTH MALAYSIA

Throughout the world, crime is predominantly devastating among the youth age group, and such is the case in the Malaysian context. Studies have shown that some youth get involved in crime unknowingly especially crimes involving cyberbullying, spousal physical violence, forced intimacy, and verbal abuse simply because of lack of knowledge on what is considered a crime. The issue of crime affects the youth themselves, their families, and the community at large. It is against this background that the study shares the concept of raising awareness on crime amongst youth’s cybercrime, drug abuse, and sexual abuse through the digital youth program. The study was guided by the structural functionalism theory. The research took a quantitative quasi-cross-sectional study design and raised awareness among 100 students between the ages of 18-23 (emerging adults) at College Genius, Klang, Selangor, divided into the experimental group and the control group. The ratings of awareness projects can be assessed before and after using police standardized crime awareness appraisal questionnaire. Results of the study show a significant difference in crime knowledge before and after intervention for the experimental group and no difference significant for the control group after the intervention highlighting the Digital Youth Program to be significant in raising awareness on crime to the youth. The study recommends for future studies to expand the Digital Youth Program to various parts of Malaysia among the youth.

Spousal violence against women and its association with sociodemographic factors and husbands’ controlling behaviour: the findings of Myanmar Demographic and Health Survey (2015–2016)

ABSTRACT Background: Spousal violence is the most common domestic violence against women and a growing public health problem globally. As a behaviour, marital control is commonly accepted as a precursor to spousal violence. Objective: This study examines the prevalence of different types of spousal violence among women in Myanmar and their association with sociodemographic factors and husbands’ controlling behaviour. Methods: This study used data from the Myanmar Demographic and Health Survey (MDHS) 2015–2016. Based on the responses of 3,425 ever-married women, cross-tabulations (Chi-squared test) and multivariate logistic regressions were applied to examine the association between controlling behaviour by husbands and lifetime physical, sexual and emotional spousal violence against Myanmar women. Synergy factor and population attributable fraction were estimated to recommend preventive strategies. Results: The prevalence of lifetime physical violence was 16.8%, of sexual violence 3.8%, of emotional violence 15.9%, and of husband’s controlling behaviour 30.2%. Women who were exposed to controlling behaviour by their husbands reported higher likelihoods of lifetime physical spousal violence (OR = 3.7; 95% CI: 3.0–4.7), lifetime sexual spousal violence (OR = 5.3; 95% CI: 3.3–8.6), and lifetime emotional spousal violence (OR = 5.6; 95% CI: 4.4–7.2). Controlling behaviour by husbands was attributed to 22.0% of lifetime physical spousal violence; and to 24.5% of lifetime sexual spousal violence and to 24.8% of lifetime emotional spousal violence in this sample of Myanmar women. Additional associated factors of spousal violence were poor wealth status, women’s wife-beating justification, exposure to parental violence, and alcohol abuse among husbands. Conclusion: Controlling behaviour by husbands was significantly associated with higher likelihoods of lifetime spousal violence among ever-married Myanmar women in this study. These findings reflect an obvious need for policy development and preventive strategies against marital controlling behaviour in Myanmar.

Economic Empowerment and Tolerance of Domestic Violence Among Married Women: A Cross-Sectional Study.

We evaluated whether markers of economic empowerment are associated with a tolerant attitude toward spousal physical violence (SPV) among employed married women in Nigeria. Cross-sectional analyses of responses to the 2013 Nigeria Demographic Health Survey by a nationally representative sample of 3,999 women aged 15 to 49 years who reported being employed and married. Tolerance for SPV was defined as supporting statements with justifications for wife-beating. Logistic regression assessed the associations of reporting tolerance for SPV with educational attainment and interspousal equivalency in income, controlling for previous exposure to domestic abuse. The prevalence of tolerance for SPV among the sample was 37%. Women with tertiary education had lower odds of tolerance for SPV relative to their counterparts without formal education (adjusted odds ratio [aOR] = 0.22, 95% confidence interval [CI] = [0.12, 0.40], p < .0001). Compared with women with similar income levels as their partners, women who either earned more (aOR = 2.77, 95% CI = [1.36, 5.62], p = .005) or earned less income relative to their spouses (aOR = 1.93, 95% CI = [1.14, 3.26], p = .02) had higher odds of tolerance for SPV. Odds of tolerance for SPV were also higher among women reporting previous spousal abuse than among their counterparts without such a history (aOR = 1.55, 95% CI = [1.14, 2.12], p = .006). A history of nonspousal abuse was associated with lower odds of tolerance for SPV (aOR = 0.56, 95% CI = [0.37, 0.84], p = .005). Lower educational attainment and interspousal differences in income may contribute to tolerance of SPV. Efforts to increase economic empowerment should be combined with education to recognize cultural norms that foster SPV and build skills to exit violent relationships.

Exploring the relationship between spousal violence during pregnancy and subsequent postpartum spacing contraception among first-time mothers in India.

BackgroundThere is a growing body of research exploring how intimate partner violence affects contraceptive decision-making, recognizing that these decisions are reflective not only of access and acceptability, but also spousal power imbalances. Unfortunately, there is a dearth of knowledge regarding contraceptive choices following gender-based violence during pregnancy. There are an estimated 7·8 million in India affected by violence during pregnancy, and an ongoing, heavy reliance on female sterilization as the dominant form of contraception. This study examines the relationship between abuse during pregnancy and subsequent postpartum spacing contraception in India.MethodsThis analysis used cross-sectional, nationally representative data from first-time mothers of children aged 6–48 months in India. Multinomial regression models assessed relationships between spousal physical violence during pregnancy and postpartum spacing contraception (none, female-controlled, male-controlled).FindingsTwo percent of first-time mothers (2·4%) reported spousal physical violence while pregnant. Women who reported abuse during pregnancy were less likely to subsequently use male-controlled contraception than no contraception (adjusted relative risk ratio [aRRR]=0·3, 95% CI 0·1–0·8; p = 0·02) and more likely to use female-controlled vs. male-controlled spacing contraception (aRRR=7·5, 95% CI 2·1–25·4, p<0·01).InterpretationWomen who experience spousal abuse during pregnancy have different postpartum contraceptive use patterns. The unique needs of this population should be incorporated into antenatal and postpartum contraceptive counseling. Efforts to increase spacing contraception use in India must consider experiences of gender-based violence and coercion.FundingThis work was supported by the 10.13039/100000865Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation [OPP1179208, PI: Raj]. Funders had no role in the design, analysis or interpretation of this research.

Violence against Afghan women by husbands, mothers-in-law and siblings-in-law/siblings: Risk markers and health consequences in an analysis of the baseline of a randomised controlled trial.

BackgroundViolence by mothers-in-law, as well as husbands, is a recognised problem in many countries. It has been given little attention in research on violence and its importance as a health problem, and aggravator of husband violence, has not been well established. Our aim was to describe patterns and the frequency of mother-in-law and sibling-in-law/sibling physical violence in relation to physical violence from husbands, and to describe risk characteristics and associated health behaviours of women with different abuse exposures.Methods1,463 women aged 18–48 were recruited into a randomised controlled trial (RCT) to evaluate a women empowerment intervention in 6 villages of Kabul and Nangarhar provinces. The women were interviewed at baseline. The analysis uses bi-variable and multivariable logistic regression.Results932 of the women were currently married. Of these, 14% of women experienced mother-in-law physical violence and 23.2% of women experienced physical spousal violence in the previous 12 months. For 7.0% of women, these exposures were combined. Physical violence was associated with food insecurity and having to borrow for food, being in a polygamous marriage, living with their mother-in-law, as well as province of residence (higher in Nangarhar). Women who had earnings were relatively protected. Whilst most mothers-in-law were described in positive terms, those who used physical violence were much less likely to be described so and a quarter were described as very strict and controlling and 16.8% as cruel. Overall slightly more women described their husband in positive terms than their mother-in-law, but there was a very strong correlation between the way in which husbands were perceived and the violence of their mothers.Women’s mental health (depression, suicidal thoughts and PTSD symptoms score), self-rated general health, disability and beating of their children were all strongly associated with intimate partner violence (IPV) exposure. The strength of the association was much greater for all of these problems if the IPV was combined with physical violence from a mother-in-law or sibling-in-law/sibling. Experienced alone, violence from the mother-in-law or a sibling-in-law/sibling was associated with an elevated risk of all of these problems except depression.InterpretationMother-in-law and sibling-in-law/sibling physical violence is an appreciable problem among the women studied in Afghanistan, linked to poverty. It has a major impact on women’s health, componding the heath impact of IPV. In this setting conceptualising women’s risk and exposure to violence at home as only in terms of IPV is inadequate and the framing of domestic violence much more appropriately captures women’s risks and exposures. We suggest that it may be fruitful for many women to target violence prevention at the domestic unit rather than just at women and their husbands.

Lifetime Spousal Violence Victimization and Perpetration, Physical Illness, and Health Risk Behaviours among Women in India.

The aim of this study was to assess the association between lifetime spousal violence victimization, spousal violence perpetration, and physical health outcomes and behaviours among women in India. In the 2015–2016 National Family Health Survey, a sample of ever-married women (15–49 years) (N = 66,013) were interviewed about spousal violence. Results indicate that 29.9% of women reported lifetime spousal physical violence victimization and 7.1% lifetime spousal sexual violence victimization (31.1% physical and/or sexual violence victimization), and 3.5% lifetime spousal physical violence perpetration. Lifetime spousal violence victimization and lifetime spousal violence perpetration were significantly positively correlated with asthma, genital discharge, genital sores or ulcers, sexually transmitted infections (STIs), tobacco use, alcohol use, and termination of pregnancy, and negatively associated with daily consumption of dark vegetables. In addition, lifetime spousal violence victimization was positively associated with being underweight, high random blood glucose levels, and anaemia, and negatively correlated with being overweight or obese. Lifetime spousal violence perpetration was marginally significantly associated with hypertension. The study found in a national sample of women in India a decrease of lifetime physical and/or sexual spousal violence victimization and an increase of lifetime spousal physical violence perpetration from 2005/5 to 2015/6. The results support other studies that found that, among women, lifetime spousal physical and/or sexual spousal violence victimization and lifetime spousal physical violence perpetration increase the odds of chronic conditions, physical illnesses, and health risk behaviours.

Women's opinion on the justification of physical spousal violence: A quantitative approach to model the most vulnerable households in Bangladesh.

Bangladesh is a culturally conservative nation with limited freedom for women. A number of studies have evaluated intimate partner violence (IPV) and spousal physical violence in Bangladesh; however, the views of women have been rarely discussed in a quantitative manner. Three nationwide surveys in Bangladesh (2007, 2011, and 2014) were analyzed in this study to characterize the most vulnerable households, where women themselves accepted spousal physical violence as a general norm. 31.3%, 31.9% and 28.7% women in the surveys found justification for physical violence in household in 2007, 2011 and 2014 respectively. The binary logistic model showed wealth index, education of both women and their partner, religion, geographical division, decision making freedom and marital age as significant household contributors for women’s perspective in all the three years. Women in rich households and the highly educated were found to be 40% and 50% less likely to accept domestic physical violence compared to the poorest and illiterate women. Similarly, women who got married before 18 years were 20% more likely accept physical violence in the family as a norm. Apart from these particular groups (richest, highly educated and married after 18 years), other groups had around 30% acceptance rate of household violence. For any successful attempt to reduce spousal physical violence in the traditional patriarchal society of Bangladesh, interventions must target the most vulnerable households and the geographical areas where women experience spousal violence. Although this paper focuses on women’s attitudes, it is important that any intervention scheme should be devised to target both men and women.

Bayesian misclassification and propensity score methods for clustered observational studies

ABSTRACTBayesian propensity score regression analysis with misclassified binary responses is proposed to analyse clustered observational data. This approach utilizes multilevel models and corrects for misclassification in the responses. Using the deviance information criterion (DIC), the performance of the approach is compared with approaches without correcting for misclassification, multilevel structure specification, or both in the study of the impact of female employment on the likelihood of physical violence. The smallest DIC confirms that our proposed model best fits the data. We conclude that female employment has an insignificant impact on the likelihood of physical spousal violence towards women. In addition, a simulation study confirms that the proposed approach performed best in terms of bias and coverage rate. Ignoring misclassification in response or multilevel structure of data would yield biased estimation of the exposure effect.

Prevalence of Spousal Violence and Associated Risk Factors: Facts from Pakistan Demographics and Health Survey 2012–13

The current study aims to investigate the risk factors associated with the prevalence of spousal violence among the women from 15 to 49 years of age in Pakistan in their marital relationship. Secondary data collected in Pakistan Demographic and Health Survey (PDHS) 2012–2013 is used. In the survey, respondents were selected using probability sampling technique from all the four provinces of Pakistan. Modified and shortened version of Conflict Tactics Scale is used to measure physical and psychological spousal violence among the women perpetuated by their ever husbands. Prevalence of physical, psychological, any type of spousal violence and associated risk factors were analyzed by unadjusted odd ratios (OR) and adjusted odd ratios (aOR). Education, profession, ethnicity and wealth index are found significant risk factors associated with spousal violence. Odds of experiencing spousal violence were higher among the poorer (aOR 1.700 CI 1.272–2.271) as compared to their richer counterparts. Moreover, the prevalence of spousal violence was found the highest (aOR 2.730 CI 2.162–3.447) in Pushton ethnic group. The study recommends improving the literacy rate and economic well-being of the poorer to address the problem of spousal violence in Pakistan.

Risk Factors for Spousal Physical Violence Against Women in Saudi Arabia.

This study aimed to explore selected risk factors for spousal physical violence (SPV) in women frequenting primary health care clinics (PHCs) in Saudi Arabia. A cross-sectional study design was conducted in six PHCs, where one-on-one, private interviews with 200 women were conducted using a standardized World Health Organization (WHO) violence against women questionnaire (v.10.0). SPV was reported by 45.5% of women. Husband-specific risk factors including alcohol or drug addiction, unemployment, control of wealth in the family, and physical aggression toward other men were significant predictors for SPV. A multisectoral approach should be implemented with focus on providers' training, women's safety, and involvement of men in violence prevention and intervention programs.

A Bayesian approach to misclassified binary response: female employment and intimate partner violence in urban India

ABSTRACTWe examine the effect of female employment on the odds of physical spousal violence using a Bayesian misclassification model combined with propensity score regression estimation. While a classical propensity score model finds a significant violence-provoking effect of female employment, our model finds no evidence of a significant effect. This suggests that misleading inferences are caused by falsely small standard errors in a model that does not account for uncertainties around propensity scores. Further, we confirm our misclassification model as a preferred specification using Deviance Information Criterion (DIC).

Religiosity,Conservatism, and Acceptability of Anti-Female Spousal Violence in Egypt.

Physical violence directed at women is a significant social and public health problem globally. Initial studies tended to concentrate on developed countries, often relying on clinical or shelter samples to assess incidence and prevalence. Although prevalence is critical, reducing or eliminating some problems also requires comprehension of cultural norms and expectations. In the present study, we use a population-based survey to understand factors contributing to attitudes in support of physical violence against married women. More specifically, the aim of the study was to investigate the impact of religiosity and social conservatism on acceptability of physical spousal violence in the Arab Republic of Egypt. Data utilized were derived from Wave 6 of the World Values Survey conducted in 2013. Bivariate and multivariate regression models were fitted to the data. It was found that religiosity was significantly associated with physical spousal violence ( b = -123, t = -4.480). Individuals who attended more often were less apt to accept physical spousal violence. Social conservatism was strongly tied to approval of physical violence ( b = .368, t = -4.115). It was concluded that culturally biased and patriarchal attitudes that devalue women in Egypt, instead of religion, may be the underlying reason for spousal abuse. It was also concluded that improving higher education for both men and women would reduce physical spousal violence.

Physical or sexual violence against women of childbearing age within marriage in Nepal: Prevalence, causes, and prevention strategies

This study examined prevalence and correlates of spousal physical or sexual violence against married women in Nepal using a nationally representative sample of 3,373 women. About 23 percent had experienced physical abuse and 14 percent had experienced sexual violence by their husbands. Compared to women married at age 20 and after, those married by age 15 had 83 percent and 71 percent higher odds of experiencing physical and sexual abuse respectively. Other risk factors included: husband’s humiliation of wife in front of others, jealousy and mistrust, excessive consumption of alcohol, and women’s awareness of physical violence against their mothers.