Professional Sports Research Articles

Effect of Green Value Cocreation on Consumer Behavior: A Professional Baseball Franchise’s “Sustainable Party” Event

This study examined whether participation in green activities affects the green purchase intention, team identification, and subjective well-being of sports fans through green value cocreation. In addition, this study explored the mediating role of team identification and the moderating role of subjective well-being in green value cocreation. Composite reliability and confirmatory factor analyses were conducted to evaluate the validity and reliability of the research instruments, and structural equation modeling was used to test the study hypotheses. The results indicated that green value cocreation significantly predicted green purchase intention, team identification, and subjective well-being. Team identification partially mediated the relationship between green value cocreation and green purchase intention. However, subjective well-being did not moderate the effect of green value cocreation on green purchase intention. This study investigated how green value cocreation enhances fan participation in environmental actions and translates into green purchase intention. The findings provide insights into the emotional connection between fans and teams and the effect of this connection on green value cocreation and green purchase intention. This study addresses a research gap regarding the role of green value cocreation in professional sports and provides practical insights for businesses, teams, and society to promote environmentally conscious consumption and behavior.

A Comprehensive Review of Multimodal XR Applications, Risks, and Ethical Challenges in the Metaverse

This scoping review examines the broad applications, risks, and ethical challenges associated with Extended Reality (XR) technologies, including Virtual Reality (VR), Augmented Reality (AR), and Mixed Reality (MR), within the context of Metaverse. XR is revolutionizing fields such as immersive learning in education, medical and professional training, neuropsychological assessment, therapeutic interventions, arts, entertainment, retail, e-commerce, remote work, sports, architecture, urban planning, and cultural heritage preservation. The integration of multimodal technologies—haptics, eye-, face-, and body tracking, and brain–computer interfaces—enhances user engagement and interactivity, playing a key role in shaping the immersive experiences in the Metaverse. However, XR’s expansion raises serious concerns, including data privacy risks, cybersecurity vulnerabilities, cybersickness, addiction, dissociation, harassment, bullying, and misinformation. These psychological, social, and security challenges are further complicated by intense advertising, manipulation of public opinion, and social inequality, which could disproportionately affect vulnerable individuals and social groups. This review emphasizes the urgent need for robust ethical frameworks and regulatory guidelines to address these risks while promoting equitable access, privacy, autonomy, and mental well-being. As XR technologies increasingly integrate with artificial intelligence, responsible governance is essential to ensure the safe and beneficial development of the Metaverse and the broader application of XR in enhancing human development.

A two-pronged approach: utilising sports governing bodies’ statutes and equal treatment legislation to achieve equality of treatment in women’s football

AbstractWomen’s football is currently growing at an exponential rate in terms of participation, viewing, engagement and commercialisation. More people than ever before are involved in women’s football, whether it be from watching, to buying merchandise or investing. However, in spite of this growth, female athletes are consistently subjected to subpar treatment when compared with that of their male counterparts. This inequality includes adequate pre-tournament and match preparation, access to medical treatment and appropriate research, professional training facilities, broadcasting and refereeing standard and professional coaching staff. Thus, this lack of equality is not confined to one area and includes all aspects of professional sport. In order to achieve parity in terms of treatment, female athletes can employ a two-pronged approach. The first is to utilise the regulatory frameworks of FIFA and the International Olympic Committee which guarantee protection and respect for human rights, as well as protection from discrimination on the basis of gender. By evoking the dispute resolution mechanisms of the governing bodies and indeed the Court of Arbitration for Sport, athletes can seek remedy for these inequalities by virtue of the fact FIFA are breaching their own statutes. Should this approach not provide appropriate redress, athletes can employ a strictly legal method by relying on domestic equal treatment legislation, whether in the EU or beyond, in order to achieve equal treatment in employment by virtue of a reliance on domestic laws and legal systems.

Identification of sport talents through leisure activity: a pathway for achieving football commercialization

ABSTRACT The study identifies how the sport talents of young people are identified through leisure activity, which supports them to achieve professional status. Through recreational specialization and network support, we understand how amateur athletes’ leisure participation evolved through realizing their professional sports dreams. Leisure and recreational specialization studies contribute to explaining players’ progression from their street football activity in communities. Semi-structured interviews and interactions with 19 former African professional players reveal that they relied mostly on networks of recreational intermediaries (e.g. agents, scouts) to reach their recreational specialization, offering them professional sports careers abroad. Former players experienced some challenges through their involvement in leisure behaviour as they sought to commercialize their leisure activity of football for socioeconomic benefit. This paper presents valued evidence for recreational managers or recreational intermediaries to support children’s leisure pursuits in identifying their talents and prospects for development to enhance their livelihood and well-being in the future.

Sports betting cannibalization: Evidence from Pennsylvania

The repeal of the Professional and Amateur Sports Protection Act (PASPA) in 2018 resulted in the rapid introduction of sports betting into many U.S. markets. This study investigates the introduction of sports betting in Pennsylvania. We explore the staggered implementation of sports betting across casinos in Pennsylvania to analyze the impact of sports betting on slot gaming and table gaming. Our results show evidence that there is no short-term effect of sports betting on the revenues generated from slot gaming and tabling gaming demand, however, our results show some evidence of complementarity on the longer-term between sports betting and other gaming options.

Impact of sports sponsorship on early career athlete performance: Czech case study

The purpose of this study is to investigate the correlation between sponsorship and the performance and development of early career athletes transitioning from junior level to professional sports, because this issue has not been fully explored in the Czech Republic. The reason is the almost absolute absence of financial or material support for such early-career athletes, when their transition from junior categories and the entire junior category is almost always exclusively financed and supported by their parents and families. We also emphasise the absolute absence of legislative provisions that would give supporters of such athletes at least a tax or other advantage. The research is based on research of Cardenas (2023), Hong and Fraser (2023) and Moolman and Shuttleworth (2023) and aims to assess how financial and material support provided by sponsors can enhance an athlete’s performance and long-term career trajectory. A mixed method approach was adopted, combining quantitative analysis through surveys and performance data with qualitative interviews. Data from 173 early career athletes from various disciplines were analysed using t-tests and ANOVA statistical methods to assess financial stability, access to better training, and community participation. Results indicate that sponsorship significantly contributes to better performance metrics, with sponsored athletes showing a 20% improvement in competition results compared to nonsponsored athletes. Furthermore, sponsorship financial support improved training opportunities and access to elite facilities, which was shown to increase athletes’ performance by 15%. However, some challenges related to sponsorship obligations, such as marketing commitments, were highlighted by athletes, underscoring the pressures that sponsorship can introduce. The implications of this study suggest that effective sponsorship strategies can play a vital role in an athlete’s career development, offering not only financial stability but also opportunities for personal branding and increased community engagement. Another implication is a possible consideration for legislators in the context of preparing a legislative framework enabling tax or other benefits for companies and organisations sponsoring or supporting these young athletes. More research is recommended to explore the long-term impact of sponsorship on athlete mental health and career sustainability, as well as the differences in sponsorship effects across various sports disciplines.

The Interplay between EU Competition Law and Professional Sports: Recent Developments and Their Potential Impact on Small States

In its December 2023 judgements delivered in the European Superleague Company and International Skating Union v Commission cases, the Court of Justice of the European Union concluded that the rules established by such sports governing bodies as FIFA, UEFA, and the International Skating Union with regard to prior authorisation of alternative competitions falling outside their jurisdiction were restrictive ‘by object’ under the union’s competition law, thus forming a pathway to creating such alternative competitions in one respect. Analysing these rulings’ potential impact on professional sports, the article discusses possible harmful effects that certain alternative competitions could have on sports in small states in particular. The author advocates taking the potential for such effects into account when national courts direct their attention to further assessing the governing bodies’ pre-authorisation rules and their specific refusals to authorise certain alternative competitions.

Talent Allocation in European Football Leagues: Why Competitive Imbalance May be optimal?

Abstract Professional sports are part of the entertainment industry; as such, its business is developed based on the perceived interest in sporting events, which in turn depends on features like: the (i) degree of competitive balance that determines the uncertainty of the outcome; the (ii) concentration of gifted players in a team, whose interaction of talents on the field enhances the quality of the ‘product joint’ that is a sporting event; the (iii) joint aggregate quality of rival teams; the (iv) appeal of rivalries associated with fans’ feelings of empathy and loyalty; etc. This paper focusses on the first three points by modelling the success of team-sport competitions as the result of the overall quality, which encompasses more than the mere sum of individual talents. Sport economists and practitioners generally acknowledge that competitive balance must be fostered to protect uncertainty about the outcome and thus achieve greater interest in sport competitions by fans and the media. In this paper, we argue that certain degree of imbalance in allocation of talent between teams may be preferable – rather than a perfect competitive balance – to broaden the interest of fans on the sport events and, thus, maximise economic outcomes. The paper also examines the discrepancies across the main European football leagues in this regard.

Effect of sacubitril/valsartan and dapagliflozin on athletic performance; can the popular cardiac medications of recent years be used as doping agents?

Abstract Background/Introduction Recent guidelines have highlighted the positive impacts of sacubitril/valsartan and dapagliflozin on heart failure management [1]. Given their potential misuse as doping agents in professional sports, this study evaluates their effects on athletic performance. Purpose To investigate the effects of sacubitril/valsartan and dapagliflozin on athletic performance and cardiac functions in a rodent model. Methods The study had a randomized double-blind design. 24 Sprague-Dawley male rats aged 4 months, divided into control, sacubitril/valsartan, and dapagliflozin groups. The rats were weighed at the start of the experiment. The medications (dapagliflozin 1,5 mg/kg/1 ml/once a day, sacubitril/valsartan 60 mg/kg/1 ml/once a day to their respective groups, and normal saline for control group) were administered via gastric gavage for 30 days. The rats were weighed, examined with transthoracic echocardiography and put on rotarod at the start of the experiment, and on 15th and 30th days. The rats were put on forced swimming tests for 20 days. Exhaustion, loss of coordinated movements and failure to surface for 3 seconds after submersion in the water were defined as indications for ending the test as per the guidelines regarding rat exercise testing [2]. M-mode and Doppler measurements, forced swimming test durations, rotarod durations and weight were recorded on 0th, 15th and 30th days. Results Initial performance metrics, including echocardiography, weight, and rotarod tests, showed no significant differences among the groups at baseline. The distributions in data were non-normal. Over the course of the study, median swimming times significantly differed from the 9th session, with dapagliflozin-treated rats exhibiting a substantial increase in endurance. Specifically, dapagliflozin group's swimming times increased to a median of 3580 seconds by the 20th session, compared to 2382 seconds in the control group and 2591 seconds in the sacubitril/valsartan group, indicating a pronounced improvement in exercise capacity (P<0.0001)(Figure-1). Echocardiographic assessments revealed enhanced cardiac output and ejection fraction, particularly in the sacubitril/valsartan group, suggesting increased cardiac efficiency and potential athletic performance enhancement. Conclusion(s) The study demonstrates a significant improvement in athletic performance with dapagliflozin compared to sacubitril/valsartan. These findings suggest a potential for misuse in sports doping, emphasizing the need for stringent regulation and monitoring within competitive athletics.Figure-1

Comparative effects of ranolazine and trimetazidine on cardiac structure and exercise capacity in a healthy rat model: a new doping agent?

Abstract Background/Introduction Anti-anginal drugs that have been shown to improve myocardial energy use include ranolazine and trimetazidine [1]. An inquiry is warranted into their ability to impact cardiac functions and exercise capacity. Purpose This study aims to evaluate the effects of ranolazine; and trimetazidine as a positive control group on cardiac structure and exercise capacity in a rodent model in comparison with the control group. Methods In a randomized, controlled trial, 24 Sprague-Dawley rats were divided into three groups: control, ranolazine, and trimetazidine. Rats were given daily doses of ranolazine (50 mg/kg/1 ml) [2], trimetazidine (10 mg/kg/1 ml) [3], or saline (control) via gastric gavage for 30 days. At the beginning of the trial, as well as on the 15th and 30th days, the rats were weighed, placed on rotarod, and assessed using transthoracic echocardiography (Figure 1). The rats underwent 21 days of forced swimming testing. According to the guidelines for rat exercise testing [4], signs of exhaustion, lack of coordinated movements, and failure to surface for three seconds following submersion in the water were designated as grounds for terminating the test. Weight, rotarod durations, M-mode and Doppler measurements, and forced swimming test durations were recorded on the 0th, 15th, and 30th days. Results No discernible differences were found between the groups in the initial evaluations. By using echocardiography, the left ventricular masses expanded in all three, indicating the emergence of an athlete's heart. In comparison to the control group, the ranolazine and trimetazidine groups showed considerable increases in their ability to exercise. In particular, the swimming times of the trimetazidine group and the ranolazine group improved to a mean of 1889 seconds by the 21st session, 1700 seconds in the trimetazidine group, and 1548 seconds in the control group (Figure 2), respectively, indicating enhanced cardiac performance. Conclusion(s) Ranolazine exhibits significant potential to enhance exercise capacity and cardiac efficiency in rats, surpassing the effects observed with trimetazidine. Trimetazidine is already registered as a doping agent in WADA [5]. These findings highlight the potential use of ranolazine as a performance enhancing agent in healthy subjects for a malicious purpose of creating unfair advantages in professional sports. Further studies in human subjects are needed.Figure 1Figure 2

Understanding following patterns among high-performance athletes

Abstract Professional sport enhances social interaction among athletes through meetings such as training groups, large-scale competitions and sponsored events. Among these, the Olympic Games represent the largest international competition, having a unique global impact. This event is assumed to promote international cooperation through the values of sport, becoming an opportunity for creating global connections between athletes. Here we want to understand the properties of the following activity, an indicator of the information flows, between highly successful Olympic athletes both at microscopic and macroscopic scales. To do so, we built a database including the Twitter usernames of Olympic medallists in Tokyo 2020, using it for creating the follower-followee network, a directed network representing who followed whom in this social network. From our database of 1052 athletes, we found 7326 connections among 964 athletes. The most popular athletes, those with highest number of followers, were Kevin Durant (basketball, USA), Allyson Felix (athletics, USA), Teddy Riner (judo, France), Alex Morgan (football, USA) and Simone Biles (gymnastics, USA). The macro-scale network structure displayed organized patterns related to microscopic—node—properties such as sex, country and sport, evidencing assortative connectivity patterns. These assortative patterns highlighted the need for a model quantifying the features’ importance in the followees choice, which we introduced through a gravity approach modelling the number of connections between homogeneous groups. Our research remarks the importance of datasets built from public exposure of professional athletes, serving as a proxy to investigate interesting aspects of many complex socio-cultural systems at different scales.

Computational turf model validation with Clegg Impact Soil Tester experimental impacts on a wide range of synthetic turf constructions

The use of synthetic turf has been increasing in professional sports, where evaluation of novel turf designs for mechanical response, consistency, and athlete playability currently requires time-consuming and complex physical testing on physical turf, and more efficient drop-weight impact testing. A variety of drop tests are used to measure the impact response and surface stiffness of synthetic turf, including the Clegg Impact Soil Tester (CIST). Finite element computational models offer an opportunity to assess new turf designs prior to the construction of physical turfs but require validation for a range of turf constructions. In the present study, 14 different synthetic turf designs with varying infill and fibers were constructed and experimentally evaluated using the CIST device. Peak accelerations and acceleration-versus-time responses were measured. The turf constituent materials were mechanically characterized, FE models of all the turfs were created, and the CIST tests were simulated. The peak acceleration from the simulation followed the experimental trend for the wide range of turf designs, with an average difference of 9.7%. When considering conventional turf constructions, the average difference in peak acceleration was 8.8%, indicating the models provided a good prediction of turf impact response and can be used to assess new turf designs virtually, potentially reducing design times and physical test requirements.

Luck in high-stakes firm lottery allocation: A natural experimental test of Coasean efficiency and invariance in a prominent sport finance setting

The NBA Player-Draft is a prominent sport-finance setting, with large rents allocated to teams. Several properties make this setting ideal to study the Coase Theorem in a cartelized-firm setting, where the Theorem’s empirical credence and overall relevance to real-world financial settings continue to be questioned. Identification of a high-stakes, salient setting featuring exogenously-assigned property rights has proven elusive. While several studies examine the Coasean implications of professional sports league drafts, we find draft rights are endogenously-assigned. We cultivate, verify, specify, and examine an exogenously-assigned draft right—draft lottery luck—for the 2000–2015 NBA Drafts. Given its revealed exogeneity, we utilize variation in annual lottery luck as a natural experiment to study the Coase Theorem and find robust evidence for “instantaneous” Coasean efficiency (as in efficiency of the efficient market hypothesis) but also evidence that Coasean invariance, with respect to firm profits, fails. Secondary analysis reveals respective mechanisms and sport-financial implications.

Moneyball Theory in Professional Sports: An Analysis of the Football Industry and Market Failure

Abstract: Nowadays, the transfer price of athletes in the sports market is getting higher and higher. Moneyball is a theory that allows professional sports teams to spend a small amount of money but bring a huge boost. Moneyball applies the economic theory of market failure, mainly using two market failures, Information Failure and Monopsony. This article will analyze two professional sports teams that use Moneyball and market failure in football and baseball and describe the advantages and disadvantages of Moneyball and the future use of Moneyball. This paper finds that Moneyball can help many teams buy cost-effective players in today's sports player market. Moneyball can also help teams refine their recruiting analysts, and there are cases where Moneyball can be used in football. To buy the most suitable players with the guarantee that the team will not break the rules. Moneyball needs more teams to apply to determine this theory in the football world.

The Role of Biomarkers in Monitoring Chronic Fatigue Among Male Professional Team Athletes: A Systematic Review

This systematic review synthesizes evidence on biomarker responses to physiological loads in professional male team sport athletes, providing insights into induced fatigue states. Structured searches across major databases yielded 28 studies examining various biomarkers in elite team sport players. Studies evaluated muscle damage markers, anabolic/catabolic hormones reflecting metabolic strain, inflammatory markers indicating immune activity and tissue damage, immunological markers tied to infection risk, and oxidative stress markers showing redox imbalances from excessive physiological load. Responses were examined in official matches and training across competitive seasons. The evidence shows that professional team sports induce significant alterations in all studied biomarkers, reflecting measurable physiological strain, muscle damage, oxidative stress, inflammation, and immunosuppression during intensive exercise. These effects tend to be larger and more prolonged after official matches compared to training. Reported recovery time courses range from 24-h to several days post-exercise. Monitoring biomarkers enables quantifying cumulative fatigue and physiological adaptations to training/competition loads, helping to optimize performance while mitigating injury and overtraining. Key biomarkers include creatine kinase, testosterone, cortisol, testosterone/cortisol ratio, salivary immunoglobulin-A, and markers of inflammation and oxidative stress. Further research should extend biomarker monitoring to cover psychological stress and affective states alongside physiological metrics for deeper insight into athlete wellness and readiness.

An online workshop to raise awareness of pelvic floor in track and field female athletes: a quasi-experimental study.

Track and field is a high-impact sport that may facilitate pelvic floor dysfunction (PFD) of females. Although increasing the information may reduce deleterious habits, the traditional workshops to date did not motivate and engage the female athletes. This study aimed to evaluate the effects of an online educational workshop about pelvic floor awareness on knowledge and habits of track and field female athletes. A total of 49 track and field athletes participated in this quasi-experimental study: 38 attended an educational workshop and 11 did not. The workshop included innovative resources, such as 3D anatomic models, practical proprioceptive exercises guided by physiotherapists, and an anonymous questions and answers section. Before and 1month later, all the athletes fulfilled an anonymous questionnaire to assess their knowledge about urinary incontinence (UI), ano-rectal incontinence (ARI), pelvic organ prolapse (POP) and female sexual dysfunction (FSD), as well as toileting and sports habits. After attending the workshop, athletes obtained higher scores in knowledge about ARI (p = 0.019), POP (p < 0.001), and FSD (p = 0.018) compared to baseline and athletes who did not attend it. No improvements were observed in habits and knowledge about UI (p > 0.05). The athletes who reached 70% of correct responses about POP had greater number of healthy habits than the rest of the athletes. An innovative educational workshop about pelvic floor increases knowledge of track and field female athletes but is insufficient to modify their habits. Sports and health professionals should design educational strategies to manage the most unknown topics about pelvic floor care, considering that the proposed methodology and innovative resources are effective to increase knowledge.

FIFA’s Football Agent Regulations and European Competition Law

Abstract We assess the relationship between professional sport and European Union competition law using the example of the FIFA Football Agent Regulations (FFAR), a set of rules enacted by FIFA, the world football governing body, to regulate the activities of football agents. The FFAR have been challenged under competition law before national courts and in arbitration proceedings before the Court of Arbitration for Sport. The European Court of Justice has been asked to rule on the matter. The FFAR are the result of an anti-competitive decision by an association of undertakings. In particular, there is no exception for such agreements under the so-called Meca-Medina test. This analysis is supported by the European Court of Justice’s 2023 rulings in sports cases, in particular the European Superleague.

Nutrition and Training Recommendations for Transgender and Gender-Diverse Athletes Involved in Strength Sports and Resistance Training: A Case Series of Nine Athletes Assigned Female at Birth.

Transgender and gender diverse (TGGD) athletes have distinct nutrition and training considerations. Guidance for nutrition and sport professionals working with TGGD athletes is lacking, especially when addressing sex-specific data. The purpose of this case series was to depict nutrition and training assessment approaches and recommendations for TGGD athletes involved in strength sports or resistance training. Six types of data informed each case presentation, including: demographic, anthropometric, health history, and survey data (Eating Competence Scale, Exercise Benefits and Barriers Scale); a 3-day food and physical activity record; and an in-depth interview. Nine TGGD athletes assigned female at birth (AFAB) presented with a range of gender identities, experiences, sport involvement, and transition journeys. Most athletes consumed inadequate energy and fiber, adequate or marginally high levels of saturated fat and added sugars, and high levels of sodium. Most athletes scored low on the Eating Competence Scale and high on the Exercise Benefits and Barriers Scale. Nutrition and sports professionals can individualize the care they provide for TGGD athletes when addressing sex-specific data and help athletes ensure they are meeting their nutrient needs.

The impact of the covid-19 pandemic on sports – reporting in the daily newspapers of the Czech Republic

The Czech quality (non-tabloid) nationwide daily newspapers never published fewer sports pages during the two first decades of twenty-first century than they did during the COVID-19 pandemic. A reduction in the number of pages devoted to sports and other topics was a logical reaction to the paralysis of professional sports and many other domains of human life. But a comparison of data from the first wave of the pandemic, from March to May of 2020 with the same period in the following years proves that the trend to downsize sports sections continued in many cases. This study applied quantitative content analysis to the Monday editions of the Czech daily newspapers Hospodářské noviny, Lidové noviny, Mladá fronta Dnes, and Právo. It confirmed that the position of sport in the daily newspapers has weakened in the long term, and the pandemic accelerated the tendency, especially in the case of more specialised daily newspapers.

Quantitative analysis of fat distribution in men and women: contribution of diet, physical activity, and FTO genotype

BACKGROUND: The Russian Federation is among the top ten countries in terms of obesity prevalence among adults. AIM: To identify the endogenous (biological factors such as age and FTO genotype) and exogenous (diet and physical activity level) factors that influence body fat accumulation and distribution among a group of women and men from Moscow. MATERIAL AND METHODS: A total of 464 volunteers, consisting of 231 women and 233 men aged between 18 and 60 years, from Moscow took part in a single-center, cross-sectional, observational study. The program involved measuring body height, weight, body and limb girths, as well as conducting caliperometry, bioimpedance analysis, and administering questionnaires. Indices of body fat distribution were calculated. Additionally, differences in genotype, specifically the rs9939609 TA variant in the FTO gene, were also determined. RESULTS: Maintaining a vegetarian diet for at least three years was associated with lower fat and fat-free mass, but not with abdominal fat in both men and women. Engaging in regular physical activity had the most significant impact on abdominal fat in both genders. Furthermore, participating in amateur or professional sports activities for a minimum of 180 minutes per week was associated with lower overall body fat. We found no association between the FTO rs9939609 gene and fat accumulation or distribution, regardless of diet and physical activity levels. CONCLUSION: The results suggest that vegetarian diet and regular physical activity are likely to be the most effective total and abdominal fat loss strategy for male and female adult residents of Moscow.