Sport Management Literature Research Articles

Organisational factors for corporate social responsibility implementation in sport federations: a qualitative comparative analysis

ABSTRACT Research question: Understanding corporate social responsibility (CSR) implementation requires identifying factors that contribute to the ability of a sport organisation to develop CSR. This paper examines the complex combination of organisational factors associated with CSR implementation in a sport federation (SF) setting. Thus, this study identifies organisational factors of professionalisation for CSR implementation and different configurations associated with CSR implementation. Research methods: The study adopted a comparative approach combining a survey, interviews, and organisational documents in a sample of 19 Belgian SFs. A crisp-set Qualitative Comparative Analysis (csQCA) was carried out to identify the combination of organisational factors associated with CSR implementation. Results and Findings: This study identifies four configurations associated with high CSR implementation and three configurations with low CSR implementation. Innovation capacity is a necessary organisational factor for CSR implementation that should be combined with financial autonomy, knowledge and human resources. The study reveals that organisational size is not a key condition associated with CSR implementation. The latter does not necessarily require a significant number of professional staff as long as the organisation is innovative and financially autonomous. Implications: This study contributes to the emergent research in the sport management literature and CSR literature on factors shaping CSR implementation by highlighting that it requires a combination of key organisational factors. The multiple configurations that emerged reveal the complex nature of CSR implementation, and reinforce the view that there is no ‘one size fits all’ solution to implement CSR.

Missing the Mark: Gathering Better Data From Student-Athlete Exit Interviews

A great deal of sport management literature in recent years draws upon the need for effective quantitative and qualitative research methods. However, there are limited cases for a sport management faculty to effectively teach students proper process, design, and implementation of survey or interview research, particularly for real-world sport applications, such as student-athlete exit interviews. This case aims to fill this gap and outlines a plan for students to identify limitations in current student-athlete exit data collection methods and to learn the common barriers associated with effective research design. Students are made aware of common missteps throughout the research process and are provided foundations for effective survey and interview design. Information taught via this case can also be used across sport management contexts, such as fan experience surveys, retail customer satisfaction surveys, or donor satisfaction interviews.

From sport event quality to quality of life: The role of satisfaction and purchase happiness

Sport events constitute attractive platforms for providing unique experiences which increase, among others, participants’ satisfaction and purchase happiness. The current research explores whether (a) how event service quality elements influence have an impact on event satisfaction; (b) how satisfaction with the event influences happiness with the consumption experience; and (c) happiness influences the participant’s perceived quality of life. Data were collected from 344 participants of an international running event in Greece, adopting survey methods. Results indicated that event evaluations, in terms of quality and satisfaction, are inter-related and affect happiness with the experiential purchase. Furthermore, for the first time evidence is provided connecting purchase happiness with quality of life. The study contributes to leisure and sport management literature by empirically demonstrating that participation in quality sport events can significantly enhance the participants’ quality of life. Implications of this study include the designing of events to have more experiential elements to contribute to consumption happiness and enhanced quality of life.

Professionalization forms in mixed sport industries: is it time to rethink the stereotypes of non-profit and for-profit sport organizations?

ABSTRACTResearch question: Sport management scholars are used to differentiate between non-profit and for-profit sport organizations (NSOs and FSOs). However, NSOs and FSOs often co-exist in the same market (i.e. mixed sport industries) and may show similar professionalization forms (e.g. strategies, processes, staff). Therefore, the research questions of this study are which professionalization forms can be identified among sport organizations in mixed sport industries and how are NSOs and FSOs distributed among the identified professionalization forms.Research methods: Exploratory factor and cluster analyses were conducted to identify professionalization forms among 71 Swiss ski schools (i.e. a mixed sport industry). Subsequently, the ski schools’ profit orientation and performance were investigated to describe the identified clusters.Results and findings: The results show two professionalization forms that conceptual sport management literature would expect of NSOs and FSOs. However, the analysis reveals three additional professionalization forms, each one applied by both NSOs and FSOs.Implications: This study is the first to identify professionalization forms among NSOs and FSOs in the same sport market. The findings imply that professionalization forms are independent of the profit orientation, which complements existing professionalization literature. The identification of relevant professionalization forms facilitates the understanding of professionalization for sport managers and helps to determine their organization’s position in the market.

Built to last: relationship quality management for season ticket holders

ABSTRACT Research question Long-term relationships between customers and organisations can benefit both parties. The purpose of this study is to examine the influence of service-related actions provided by a professional sport team on relationship quality (RQ). The current study is aimed at answering two research questions: (1) ‘what are antecedents of RQ?’ and (2) ‘how do the composition and quality of services provided by sports organisations impact customer perceptions of the quality of their relationship?’ Research methods Over 3300 season ticket holders (STH) of a professional Australian Football team were surveyed. The predictive ability of the antecedents and RQ was examined by testing the direct relationship between RQ and STH behavioural intentions, including intentions of remaining a STH and referral intention. Results and findings Four key service and performance-related antecedents (service quality, communication, administration and on-field performance) had a positive influence on RQ. RQ was a significant predictor of intentions to remain a STH and referral intention. Implications This study contributes to sport management literature by highlighting the importance of developing high-quality relationships. Areas team management can directly control, such as good administration and communications efforts, improve perceptions of the relationship between STH and team, providing a potential buffer against unpredictable on-field outcomes that are a feature of professional sport. Our findings should encourage sport managers to use strategic service-related actions within their operations to positively influence the deep and long-lasting relationships between STH and a sports team.

Drivers of customer satisfaction and loyalty in swimming pools

Purpose It is widely accepted that doing exercise regularly is essential to promote physical, psychological and social well-being. Yet, often dropout rates tend to be high. The purpose of this paper is to propose a model to understand the potential drivers of satisfaction and loyalty in the sports and fitness context looking in particular at four main dimensions of service quality: infrastructures/physical environment, relationship with instructors/staff, outcomes achieved and customer-to-customer interaction. Design/methodology/approach An extensive literature review was conducted to identify potential drivers of customer satisfaction and loyalty in sports. The proposed model was estimated using data collected from a sample of 384 users of four Portuguese swimming pools facilities by means of a survey questionnaire. Findings The majority of the hypotheses tested found support in the data. In particular, the quality of the interaction with instructors and the results obtained from exercising have a strong impact on satisfaction, which, in turn, is highly correlated with psychological commitment and positive word-of-mouth communication. Research limitations/implications Based on the findings some managerial implications can be derived. Such recommendations can enhance users’ perceptions of service quality and indirectly contribute to a more regular and effective sports practice. Originality/value The importance of enhancing loyalty has been emphasised in sports management literature. Yet, few studies have empirically investigated the simultaneous relationships among service quality dimensions, customer satisfaction and loyalty. This research partially addresses this gap.

Effects of employee training on job satisfaction outcomes among sport ticket sellers

As the primary revenue generators for sports organisations, salespeople play a critical role in the sport industry. Research regarding salesperson effectiveness and well-being, however, is scant within the sport management literature, and little has been empirically investigated related to the salesperson's role in sport organisations. The purpose of this study is to examine the relationship between sales training on both job satisfaction and turnover intent measures among professional sellers within sport organisations. No significant differences were found between the amount of initial sales training received and measures of job satisfaction and intent to leave the organisation. Significant differences were found, however, on two measures of on-going sales training (amount and quality) with both job satisfaction and turnover intent. The findings suggest a relationship between training and occupational satisfaction, which has important managerial implications as sport sales positions traditionally have a high rate of job turnover.

Explicating professional boxers' narrative dynamics towards competitive aggressiveness and potential market entry

Research on subversive entrepreneurship considers the process in which firms outperform rivals when entering the market. Although the research has recognised that firms try to destroy the existing market while creating a new one, it still does not specify the narrative dynamics of subversive market entry. In this study, the market entry was studied in a non-business context (i.e., professional boxing), which widens the view of who could be entrepreneurial individuals. The subversive attributes were measured (applied both in boxing and business) in pre-event narratives that were then related to the competitive aggressiveness in post-event interview narratives. The results show a U-shaped relationship between the optimism and competitive aggressiveness content in these narratives and a negative linear relationship between these same variables. The result of an event moderates this effect into a positive one. These results contribute to the sport management literature by offering a perspective of sportsmen as entrepreneurial narrative generators and potential future entrepreneurs.

Performance management of National Sports Organisations: a holistic theoretical model

PurposeOrganisational performance of sport organisations has been studied over the last three decades. However, little attention was paid towards performance management (PM) compared to performance measurement. The purpose of this paper is to close this research gap by establishing a holistic perspective for PM of National Sports Organisations (NSOs) that accounts for their uniqueness, the interdependence of their operating systems and their relationship with their environments. Furthermore, this paper presents a holistic model of PM for NSOs.Design/methodology/approachThe model was developed from a literature review process and uses the macro, meso and micro framework to describe external and internal environmental influences that affect the PM of NSOs.FindingsThe NSO’s ability to respond to the dynamics of their external environment by implementing organisational processes that account for the resources available and their structural designs influences their PM. Furthermore, the ability of the individuals within NSO to create enabling environments for PM influences organisational efficiency and effectiveness.Research limitations/implicationsThis paper contributes to sport management literature on the PM of NSOs, and informs sport managers on ways to improve organisational performance by implementing holistic approaches to PM.Originality/valueThis is the first study that takes a holistic approach to PM of NSO and depicts the specific elements that play a crucial role in managing NSO’s multi-dimensional performance.

Managing professional footballers’ finances to avoid financial problems

PurposeAcademics have studied the finances of football clubs, but not the financial situation of professional football players. To fill this gap in literature, the purpose of this paper is to analyse the financial situation of individual players, the causes of financial problems and the probability of encountering financial difficulties.Design/methodology/approachA survey has been conducted of 102 players of five clubs in the Belgian first division. Based on this unique data set, a multivariate nominal logistic regression model allows the causes of financial difficulties to be identified. A derived classification model is estimated in order to predict the probability of professional players encountering financial problems.FindingsAbout one out of four professional players is confronted with occasional financial problems. Next to the use and investment of income; personal, family and career status factors have a peculiar impact on the individual financial situation of professional sports players.Practical implicationsThe results allow better identification of professional players likely to incur financial problems and better assisting them avoid problems.Originality/valueGiven the gap in the sports management literature, the findings from the econometric approach provide both researchers and practitioners with new insights into financial management issues of athletes. The findings may help athletes, their managers and club managers in their decision making. Future research can further build on these findings.

How well do you know your spectators? A study on spectator segmentation based on preference analysis and willingness to pay for tickets

ABSTRACTResearch question: Do club managers know enough about their spectators? Fan protests against increasing ticket prices in European sports show the ongoing disconnect between fans and clubs. The purpose of this article is to examine sport event spectators’ preferences for tickets and their willingness to pay (WTP) considering innovative ticket features. This research contributes to existing research on spectator segmentation and ticket pricing.Research methods: This study is the first in sport management literature to apply choice-based conjoint analysis in combination with latent classes. We conduct online surveys of two German basketball clubs and collect data on more than 750 spectators.Results and findings: Benefit segmentation analyses of both spectator groups lead to four spectator segments each, which differ depending on preferences for opposing teams, seat categories, and WTP. The results show that the prevailing assumption of homogeneous spectator preferences in sport management research leads to estimation bias.Implications: Spectator preferences are heterogeneous. Therefore, club managers need to know and understand their spectators to better adjust ticket options. Furthermore, the results provide theoretical contributions for spectator segmentation and ticket pricing literature.

A Postcolonial Reading of Representations of Non-Western Leadership in Sport Management Studies

This study examines how leadership in non-Western sporting contexts has been represented in the mainstream (Western) sport management literature. A postcolonialism-informed critical discourse analysis, focusing on the locus of enunciation of each selected representation, reveals the limitations of current mainstream leadership studies in explaining phenomena in non-Western sport contexts and in fostering a comprehensive, multilayered understanding of globalization of sport. Thus, it is imperative to consider what leadership in sport means in local contexts outside the West and having multiple narratives of sport and sport leadership is therefore necessary. To illustrate this, we introduce a discussion of Indigenous leadership perspectives based on studies conducted in Indigenous communities, present ways in which Indigenous Peoples understand leadership differently from the conventional definitions, and suggest some opportunities for research. We conclude with examples in the literature where authors have been theoretically and methodologically reflexive when explaining local issues in peripheral contexts.

An empirical exploration of sponsorship sales in North American professional sport

PurposeSponsorship sales in professional sport is an area of increasing attention and growing investment, but the sport management literature offers only limited research about sales strategies and tactics. As a result, practitioners and academics alike have called for investigation in the area. In response to this need, the purpose of this paper is to empirically explore sponsorship sales in professional sport.Design/methodology/approachSponsorship sales professionals working for sport properties in the four major North American sport leagues were surveyed on a variety of sponsorship sales-related variables and factors.FindingsA total of 92 sponsorship sales professionals responded to the study, for an estimated 15.3 percent response rate. At the time of the data collection, the 92 respondents worked in the National Football League (NFL) (37), Major League Baseball (MLB) (16), National Basketball Association (NBA) (18), and National Hockey League (NHL) (21). A series of practical, conceptual, and comparative results are presented, highlighted by turnover as a problem, the importance of activation/servicing in sponsorship sales, and the high level of investment clubs are making in sponsorship sales.Research limitations/implicationsFirst, on “coverage,” the authors acknowledge that variations in the data can be linked, to a large extent, to reporting issues due to the nature of the study, the data, and the sample. Variations in sponsor number or training, for example, are not necessarily indicative of weaknesses in the industry, but occur because of strategic differences among properties. Second, it is important to note that not all properties had personnel respond to the study. Consequently, the figures presented in this study might be a function of the individual personnel who responded rather than a true average figure for a particular league. Third, in terms of the sample, this study deals with a very specific context in the four North American major sport leagues (NFL, MLB, NBA, and NHL). Thus, one should be careful in generalizing to minor professional, collegiate, Olympic, or other sport contexts.Practical implicationsThe finding of this paper states that the turnover of sponsors may be a structural issue and is certainly related to the demand for the particular property (Seaver Marketing Group, 2010). Driven by a number of factors, including technology shifts to digital channels and increased sophistication by the sponsorship sales departments of professional sport properties, a shift in the activation and service paradigm is reported and extended to the specific context of sponsorship sales.Social implicationsResults show that sport properties in the North American major sport leagues have a strong commitment to sponsorship sales by the organization (commitment of resources), by sport personnel (who support the business side), and by their sponsorship sales professionals who report satisfaction, motivation, and support from their property.Originality/valueTo the authors’ knowledge, this is the first empirical research study specific on sponsorship sales in professional sport, thus providing direction for practice and future research on an issue of high importance to the sport industry.

The Role of Physical Attractiveness in Tennis TV-Viewership

What is beautiful is good, the ancient Greek lyric poet Sappho wrote over 2,500 years ago. Studies in social sciences, anthropology, psychology, and economics have shown various effects of physical attractiveness. Physically attractive people are hired more often, receive faster promotion, and generally earn more per hour; thus, there is a beauty premium. However, within the context of sports, little is known about consumer preferences concerning athletes’ physical attractiveness. In this study, we analyze 622 live tennis matches from 66 Grand Slam tournaments between 2000 and 2016, examining the relationship between attractiveness, measured by tennis players’ facial symmetry, and TV-viewership. We show that facial symmetry plays a positive role for female matches while there is no significant effect for male matches. The effect persists in several sub-sample regressions and robustness checks. Our results have important implications for managers in the field of sports. TV-broadcasters will likely acknowledge additional revenue potential from advertising due to increased viewership and change their programming accordingly. We contribute to the sports management and economics literature in that we introduce a new method to measure facial symmetry and show that physical attractiveness plays a positive role in tennis TV-viewership.

Upper Echelons in Professional Sport: The Impact of NBA General Managers on Team Performance

This study integrates upper echelons theory into the sport management literature by investigating general manager (GM) strategic decision-making in the National Basketball Association. Specifically, this research examines individual contextual variables as they relate to the human resource decision-making tendencies of GMs. Utilizing 17 seasons of data on team performance and individual GM characteristics, we estimate two-stage panel regression models to examine the relationship between GM-related variables and organizational performance. We find that both GM technical experience and GM education are positively related to winning and efficiency. The results also illustrate the importance of acquiring elite-level talent and indicate positive returns to GMs whom are able to do so. These findings are relevant for team ownership and suggest a link between organizational performance and the personal characteristics of league GMs. The analysis furthers our understanding of the GM–team player talent–organizational performance relationship in professional sport.

Exogenous Policy Shock and Logic Centrality Shift: NBA Policy and NCAA Outcomes

This study integrates the literature on organizational fields and logics of action with the sport management and economics literature by investigating the impact of an exogenous shock on talent distribution in the field of National Collegiate Athletic Association Division 1 men’s basketball. We examine data related to human resource entry and exit through the lens of the National Basketball Association’s one-and-done rule and its subsequent impact on competitive balance among National Collegiate Athletic Association Division 1 men’s basketball programs. Hypotheses are tested in relation to pre- and postshock talent dispersion and competitive balance employing an interdisciplinary econometric approach to evaluate management-driven outcomes. Broadly, we find improvements in balance and a broader distribution of player talent among schools comprising larger conferences, whereas smaller conferences experienced reductions or no changes in balance. Implications are discussed and future directions for integrated institutional theory and sport management research are suggested.

Does Spectatorship Increase Happiness? The Energy Perspective

Based on self-determination theory, the current research examined the effect of team identification on spectators’ energy and happiness. Most importantly, this research attempted to identify a key underlying mechanism of why and when sport spectatorship enhances spectators’ happiness by adapting energy, a new concept to the sport management literature. The results indicate that spectators with high team identification reported a greater level of happiness than those with low team identification only when their team won the game. When the supported team lost the game, spectators with both high and low team identification experienced similar levels of happiness. Furthermore, this study proposed a moderated mediation effect of vitality to provide evidence for the anticipated underlying mechanism. The results of the moderated mediation test indicated that a feeling of vitality mediated the effect of team identification on happiness, but only in the winning game condition. In contrast, in the losing game condition, a feeling of vitality did not mediate the effect of team identification on happiness. Theoretical and practical implications are discussed.

Career Paths of Women Working in Leadership Positions within Intercollegiate Athletic Administration

Scholars have focused their attention on the careers of women working in management positions in several sport industry segments, however, limited research has focused on careers of women working in intercollegiate athletic administration. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to examine career information of women working in the administration of intercollegiate athletics. The study addressed the following amongst women working in intercollegiate athletic administration: (a) demographics, (b) career paths, (c) most/least enjoyable aspects of their jobs, (d) greatest challenges, (e) career advice, and (f) short-term and long-term career aspirations. This descriptive study provided insight for women wanting to explore a career within intercollegiate athletic administration. The information is useful for both women and men working in intercollegiate athletic administration and to the NCAA organization in support of its ongoing work to promote diversity in leadership positions. In addition, women wishing to pursue a career in intercollegiate athletics face a number of challenges, but acknowledging the voices of the women within this study can begin to explain some of the steps needed to maximize women's contributions to this field. Finally, this study contributes to the body of knowledge in the sport management literature in intercollegiate athletics.

Innovations in Sport Management: The Role of Motivations and Value Cocreation at Public Viewing Events

During mega-sport events, such as FIFA World Cup or Olympic Games, Fan Fests and other public viewing events have been developed as an innovative value proposition for watching sports. Those events attract millions of sport spectators worldwide. Event organizers have already realized the tremendous economic potential, yet sport management literature provides little empirical evidence on this innovation in sport management. Therefore, this study investigates motivational drivers for sport consumption of public viewing events and provides a better understanding of innovation-induced value cocreation at sport events. As public viewing represents an innovative mixture of stadium and television, we conduct a literature review of sport spectator motivations and study empirical findings in the stadium, television, and public viewing context. Based on this theoretical background we conduct a quantitative analysis. During the UEFA EURO 2008TM in Austria and Switzerland, 498 spectators were interviewed using a standardized questionnaire at official public viewing events. The findings of this analysis reveal two new motivational dimensions for passive sport consumption. Spectators of public viewing events enjoy the freedom to move around and the intercultural contact and therefore the chance to socialize with fan groups from different countries and cultures. Those new motivational dimensions represent key drivers of sport consumption behavior in the context of public viewing events. In addition to those empirical findings, we derive practical implications in order to understand how innovations in sport management such as public viewing events open new ways to create value at sport events.

When the future of Chinese soccer is at stake

PurposeThe purpose of this paper is to examine the impact of Chinese youth’s attention to and involvement with Chinese soccer and its professional league, the Chinese Super League (CSL), on their level of satisfaction.Design/methodology/approachA survey study was employed to test the hypotheses. Research participants (n=948) were students from five major universities that represented each of the five main geographic regions of China. Data were randomly assigned into two halves: one half for CFA (n=474) and the other half for structural equation modeling (SEM) (n=474). Mplus 7.0 was used to conduct both the CFA and SEM.FindingsThe findings of this study indicated an overall lack of attention to and involvement with Chinese soccer and CSL among Chinese youths. Discussions have been presented on the causes of the lack of youth passion for Chinese soccer and suggestions have been articulated to improve the effectiveness and efficiency of policy formulation, business operation and marketing strategy.Originality/valueThe present study built on the extant sport management literature, demonstrated the complexity of consumers’ cognition and conation in the professional soccer setting, and revealed counter-intuitive relationship between attitudinal traits and behavioral patterns, which in turn provided unique insights for Chinese professional soccer marketers, managers and administrators.