Sport Conference Research Articles

イギリススポーツ哲学会大会報告

イギリススポーツ哲学会大会報告

Networks and the Organization of Identity: The Case of Norwegian Snowboarding

In this paper a particular aspect of change in the organization of sport is addressed: the emergence of alternative, flexible types of sport organizations linked to lifestyle sports. Based on a qualitative case study of the Norwegian Snowboard Federation (NSBF), the paper raises the questions of what characterizes such organizations and which challenges occur when they become part of more traditional sports organizations. Network theory is used in order to analyse NSBF's processes of establishing legitimacy within the snowboard community while at the same time having to adapt to the formal requirements of the Norwegian Olympic Committee and Confederation of Sports (NOC). The paper demonstrates that networking activities may be used to create and sustain new social entities such as the NSBF. However, networks as organizational forms also create contradictions to traditional sport systems that need to be solved through bargaining, concealment or challenging.

Politicians, bureaucrats and a voluntary sports organization – the power play of Norwegian sport policy in the matter of anti-doping

The aim of this essay is to understand the tripartite relationship between politicians and bureaucrats in the public sector and the leadership in voluntary sport organizations. In so doing, we conducted a case study of a specific incident in the history of sport policy, based on written texts (newspaper articles and books) as well as interviews (personal information) from those involved. With Elias's game models as the theoretical framework, we analyse the case where the General Director of the Department of Sport Policy (DSP) expressed his personal/political opinion about anti-doping in public, and played the game in two figurations. First, the game was played in the sport figuration, where the General Director's competitors were the leaders of the voluntary sport organization (the Norwegian Olympic Committee and Confederation of Sports, NOC). Second, the game moved up a level and was played in a political figuration, where the General Director's competitors were the political leadership in the DSP. While the Director General was used to playing one to one, the combination of a union sport figuration and the formal power in the political figuration led to an outcome that no one had intended, namely the resignation of the Director General.

Policy-Making in Sport

This article analyses how public sport policy is made as a result of the interactions between the public sport administration, the political system and sport organizations, and discusses the relevance of three theoretical approaches — corporatism, policy communities and clientelism — for explaining policy-making within the Norwegian context. It builds on two case studies. The first case study concerns the process leading up to the adoption of Parliament's white paper on `Changing Sport Life', whereas the second case investigates the processes leading to the change in the law on gambling, which had a considerable impact on sport funding. These two cases cast light on different ways in which sport policy is made. The white paper on sport life is a central policy document that defines the objectives and means of public policies within sport, whereas the law on gambling has a determinant impact on the public funding of sport. The sport administration initiated the first case, whereas the Norwegian sport confederation initiated the second case. These two case studies suggest that the neo-corporatist model that was used to characterize the field of sport from 1946 onward has been undergoing transformations during the last decade, even if some neo-corporatist features persist.

Let the Games Begin

Artiklen har fokus på lovgningsprocesserne af den tidligere og nuværende eliteidrætslov, i perioderne 1979-1984 og 2002-2004. 
 
 Evald Iversen and Lasse Taagaard Jensen: Let the Games Begin – the elite sports laws of 1984 and 2002
 This article tries to develop an understanding of the interplay between the Danish Government (i.e. the Ministry of Culture) and the interest organisations within the area of elite sports. The central argument is that close cooperation exists between the actors in the field. The Government as well as the interest organisations possess resources that are interesting seen from their counterparts perspective. On the basis of the first elite sports law the elite sports organisation »Team Danmark« was created in 1984. Its success and the contentment from athletes at the elite level meant that Team Danmark was difficult to ignore when a second elite sport law was in the making in 2004. The organisation had marked itself as a new player in field of elite sports. The Minister of Culture and the Chairman of the National Olympic Committee and Sports Confederation of Denmark (Danmarks Idræts Forbund) had a firm association during the process which led to the newest legislation in 2004 – but eventually they could not control the legislation process. This was partly due to the other players involved and partly to these partners cooperation with the media. In the end this meant that the 2004 process became fragmented with several actors involved – even though the interplay between the state and the sports organisations continued to be intertwined with relatively few actors involved.

The Swedish Sports Movement and the PE Teacher 1940–2003: From supporter to challenger

The Swedish Sports Confederation (RF) used to be the foremost advocate and defender of physical education (PE) as a subject and the work of PE teachers. This paper deals with the way in which this support manifested itself during 1940–2003 and is based on a discourse analysis of texts from RF. The analysis shows that RF has assigned three positions to PE teachers: instructor, recruiter, and health promoter. Sports leaders have gradually managed to occupy these positions, however, and as a result RF's interest in PE teachers and the PE subject has abated. The market adjustment of Swedish schools has made it possible for competitive sports to establish itself in schools side by side with compulsory PE. The study implies that gender equality is thus challenged. It is also an example of the fact that the boundaries between the private, non‐profit‐making, and public sectors have become fuzzy in Swedish schools.

Do elite athletes experience low back, pelvic girdle and pelvic floor complaints during and after pregnancy?

The aim of the present investigation was to study prevalence of low back pain, pelvic girdle pain (PGP) and pelvic floor disorders during pregnancy and after childbirth in elite athletes. A postal questionnaire was sent to all elite athletes who had given birth registered with The Norwegian Olympic Committee and Confederation of Sports (n=40). Eighty age-matched women served as the control group. The response rates were 77.5% and 57.5% in the elite athletes and control groups, respectively. There were no significant differences in the prevalence of low back and PGP, urinary or fecal incontinence among elite athletes and controls at any time point. The prevalence of low back pain without radiation to the leg in elite athletes was 25.8%, 18.5%, 9.7% and 29% the year before pregnancy, during pregnancy, 6 weeks postpartum and at the time of completing the questionnaire, respectively. The prevalence of PGP was 0, 29.6%, 12.9% and 19.4%. Prevalence of stress urinary incontinence was 12.9%, 18.5%, 29% and 35.5%. None of the elite athletes had fecal incontinence at any time point. There were no differences in mode of delivery or birthweight between elite athletes and controls. The elite athletes had a significantly lower body mass index at 6 weeks postpartum and at present compared with the control group.

Integration of Disability Sport in the Norwegian Sport Organizations: Lessons Learned

The Norwegian Olympic Committee and Confederation of Sports’ commitment to integrate disability sport in the sport organizations for the able-bodied was evaluated based upon a description of an ideal, inclusive sports organization. Data were collected primarily through interviews and questionnaires. The results indicate that the integration process proceeded more slowly than originally intended. There were still unresolved matters on the structural/organizational level, and the sports federations’ officials were uncertain about the extent of their responsibility and the role of the new sports organization for persons with a disability. More relevant competence was needed in the organization. All organizations reported improved attitudes toward individuals with a disability and indicated that integration was a demanding enterprise.

Sport and Mental Health Conference: From Chemistry to Communities Melbourne, Australia

Sport and Mental Health Conference: From Chemistry to Communities Melbourne, Australia

Individuality or Cultural Reproduction?

The Norwegian Government initiated the Sports City Program (SCP) in 1992 in an attempt to encourage inactive segments of the urban population to become more active. The program was implemented by the Norwegian Olympic Committee and Confederation of Sports and is designed to provide sporting activities for those who are not involved in conventional sports. Through a survey in one of the cities where the SCP is most developed, this study examines the degree to which adolescents (age 16-19) participate in SCP activities. Drawing on the work of Bourdieu, I argue first, that a considerable overlap between participants in conventional sports and SCP activities indicates that the new sport activities, to a considerable extent, provide further opportunities for those who already participate in the sporting field. Second, however, the Sports City Program also seems to attract a different type of adolescent, in terms of social class, compared to those who participate in conventional sports. For these two rather different groups, their habitus for participation in sport is influenced by their family members’ and peers’ relation to sport, though in different ways.

The Annual British Association of Sport and Exercise Sciences Conference 2004 7th- 9thSeptember 2004

The Annual British Association of Sport and Exercise Sciences Conference 2004 7^th- 9^thSeptember 2004

Energy efficient motor sport

Despite several comments at the last Energy Efficient Motor Sport conference, energy efficiency could provide a new stimulus for exciting motor racing.

Empowering Young Female Athletes Through a Self-Strengthening Programme: A Qualitative Analysis

The aim of this study was to describe how young female athletes perceived the influences of a self-strengthening programme. The self-strengthening programme for young female athletes was run by the Swedish Sport Confederation. The programme was designed to empower young female athletes. The study methodology was based on a phenomenographic approach and entailed interviews with a strategically selected group of 14 participants in the programme. The informants were between 13 and 20 years of age and came from individual and team sports. The findings show that perceived influences of the programme were: a feeling of self-confidence; a feeling of being seen and confirmed; awareness of women’s issues; a feeling of belongingness; and an improvement in coaching skills. The self-strengthening programme empowered young female athletes due to increased self-efficacy and an increased awareness of women’s issues.

Increased Prevalence of Eating Disorders in Athletes- a Controlled Study

Introduction: Only a handful of studies on athletes and eating disorder (ED) have gone beyond the administration of ED questionnaires. Several researchers have pointed out the limitations of ED questionnaires and the need to use clinical interviews to determine more accurate prevalence data. Furthermore, it has been stated that since athletes constitute a unique population special diagnostic considerations should be made when working with this group. Previous investigations suggest ED to be of clinical concern mainly in female athletes but it is as yet not clear whether clinical ED is a problem among male athletes, or whether gender differences observed in the general population also exist among athletes. Therefore, the aim of the present study was to examine the prevalence of male and female elite athletes and control meeting the DSM-IV criteria for ED or the criteria for anorexia athletica (AA). Methods: This two-stage study comprised initial screening by a questionnaire to detect athletes and controls “at risk” for ED, and thereafter a detailed standardized clinical interview of all “at risk” individuals. The prevalence of eating disorders (ED) was studied in the total population of Norwegian male (n = 960) and female (n = 660) elite athletes and a matched group of controls (916 males and 780 females). First all participants were sent a questionnaire for screening. The response rate was 83% in athletes and 74% in controls. Thereafter, based on the questionnaire 182 athletes (12%) and 80 controls (5%) were classified as “at-risk” for ED. Participation rate in athletes and controls was 98% and 89% respectively. Athletes and controls meeting the DSM-IV criteria for ED or the criteria listed for AA were classified as eating disordered athletes and controls. Results: The diagnostic criteria for ED were met by more female (20%) than male athletes (9%), (p < 0.05). Corresponding values for controls were lower in both genders, females (9%) vs. female athletes (p < 0.051) and males 0.5% vs. male athletes (p < 0.01). A significantly higher prevalence of ED was observed among female athletes competing in aesthetic (42%), weight class (30%) and endurance sports (24%), as compared to the prevalence in the other sports (all significance levels being, p < 0,05). For the male athletes, ED were significantly more common in anti-gravitation sports (22%) and weight class sports (18%), as compared to other sports (all significance levels being, p < 0,05). Based on international ranking classification, no significant difference was observed in prevalence of ED among athletes. Discussion: ED is more prevalent in female than in male athletes. Furthermore the prevalence of ED is higher in elite athletes of both genders as compared to controls. A higher prevalence was also diagnosed in “leanness-” and/or weight-class sports as compared to the other sports. Thus, sport specific demands seem to be related to the development of ED. Therefore prevention- and treatment programs targeting elite athletes have to be developed and initiated. Acknowledgements: This study was supported by grants from the Norwegian Olympic Committee and Confederation of Sports.

THE SWEDISH MODEL AND INTERNATIONAL SPORT

One of the most striking features of the development of the Fédération Internationale de Football Association (FIFA) during the 1990s has been the emergence of a political and economic alliance between the Union des Associations Européennes de Football (UEFA) and the Confédération Africaine de Football (CAF). What is remarkable about this state of affairs is that the relationship between the two confederations has traditionally been characterized by acrimony and mistrust. However, the election of the Swede, Lennart Johansson, as Europe's leading football administrator in 1990 has transformed the climate of power relations between African and European football. As well as exploring the nature of the Afro-European coalition and assessing its impact on world football politics, this article examines how and why Johansson came to form the central axis around which this new relationship was brokered. Particular attention is accorded to Johansson's nationality and it is argued that his approach to the governance of world football is underpinned by the broader philosophies that are embodied within his own country's system of political, social, economic and sporting organization, or the `Swedish model' as it has come to be known. The article adopts a qualitative methodology involving in-depth interviews with Johansson as well as key figures within Svenska Fotbollförbundet (Swedish Football Association) and parliamentarians responsible for their respective parties' sports policies. Extensive use is also made of primary archival sources obtained from the Swedish Sports High School (Idrottshögskolan) in Stockholm, the Swedish Sports Confederation (Riksidrottsförbundet) in Farsta and additional primary research sources obtained from FIFA, CAF and UEFA.

Sport, Physical Activity, Recreation and Law Conference

Sport, Physical Activity, Recreation and Law Conference

Is It Worth the Price? Women’s Involvement in Leadership and Coaching in Sport Organizations in Norway

The Norwegian Confederation of Sports, the non-profit umbrella organization for all organized sports in Norway, has gradually accepted women’s demands for equal opportunities and full integration at all levels. The situation for women in sports politics and coaching today is characterized by male dominance as well as high drop-out rates and recruiting problems among women.The aim of the investigation, as basis for this article, was to give women’s experiences within elected posts and coaching a public voice and elaborate why women hesitate to involve themselves or drop-out after a short period of time. The following questions are outlined and discussed:- What motivates women to take up elected posts and coaching? - What experiences do women have after holding such posts and roles? - What problems and challenges seem to be difficult to face and handle?The analytical perspective was inspired by the feminist critique of organizations as gender-neutral arenas, and Bourdieu’s analysis of dominance and power within social fields. The empirical material consisted of questionnaire data and data from a search conference. The sample consisted of women holding elected posts, as well as, female coaches.Based upon the results women as a group within male domains were not empowered to raise and articulate interests and needs as women. The respondents reported an awareness of barriers, role conflicts and dilemmas, but lacked most often the ability to initiate collective emancipatory changes. The established male-dominated practices were seen as selfevident and natural. Many women chose the strategy of exit as the solution to their situation, because the cost of promoting change outweighed the benefits.

Contractualism and Methodological Individualism and Communitarianism; Situating Understandings of Moral Trust in the Context of Sport and Social Theory1

In recent academic discussions about the nature of sport, education and society much has been made of the differing ways of conceiving social relations between individualists and communitarians. I explore some of the theoretical presuppositions of methodological individualism and show how it operates in game and rational choice theory. I set out, in contrast, three related versions of communitarianism. I show how these stances differently interpret the social relation/virtue that is known as ‘trust’ and, in so doing, highlight the inadequacy of the ontological account of the self in individualistic terms and point to the necessity of viewing close interpersonal relations as ones of partially shared identity. I develop a hypothetical example of a coach's abuse of his young swimmer to illustrate the respective richness and inadequacy of these theoretical positions while leaving open the advocacy of particular political policies designed to eradicate such practices. [1] This paper began life as ‘Trust, contract and community: an essay in feminist ethics and communitarian polities' delivered at the Sport, Philosophy and Olympics Conference, Maryland College, Woburn, 15–17 March 1996. I have amended the scope of the essay and dropped certain claims regarding the uniqueness of the feminist dimension of the ethical discussion. I am very grateful Graham McFee, Gordon Reddiford, Paul Standish, Patricia White and to the anonymous reviewer of this journal, for their generous criticisms.

Communications to the sport and science conference

Communications to the sport and science conference

The Many Faces of Sports Labor

From the Publisher—Everyone at the Center has anxiously awaited the first issue of the Journal of Sport and Social Issues with Dr. Lawrence Wenner from the Sports and Fitness Management Program at the helm. Over the past few months I have received many great reports about the "new look" Journal. An incredible amount of work went into it by our new editor and others at the University of San Francisco. Specifically I would like to thank USF's Office of PublicAffairs for all their efforts on behalf of the Journal's new design and layout. Lawrence has already done a tremendous job of promoting the Journal, starting with his network ofscholars and journalists, and working with his colleagues at the North American Society for the Sociology of Sport conference. The future of the Journal has never been brighter. Lawrence Wenner deserves all the credit for this.