Sport Skill Learning Research Articles

Attentional focus strategies in racket sports: A systematic review.

The body of evidence has shown that the external focus of attention (EF) rather than the internal focus of attention (IF) enhances motor skill learning and performance. Within racket sports which require a high level of motor control, anticipation skills, and mental preparedness, effectively directing attention is essential to elicit improvements in athletic performance. The present review aimed to evaluate the scientific evidence concerning the effects of attentional focus instructions on motor learning and performance in racket sports. We systematically reviewed the literature according to the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Review and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) guidelines. The study was registered with the Open Science Framework (osf.io/m4zat). Four electronic databases (Web of Science, Scopus, MEDLINE, and SPORTDiscus) were searched for original research publications. Inclusion criteria were: peer-reviewed journals; healthy and free from injury participants; attentional focus literature specific to the external or internal focus; attentional focus related to motor learning or motor performance; studies included at least one comparator (e.g., different attentional focus group, or control groups with neutral or no specific instruction); publications in which task(s) or skill(s) related to one of the racket sports (tennis, table tennis, badminton, squash, or padel). The initial search yielded 2005 studies. Finally, 9 studies were included in the quantitative analysis. Overall, the results indicated that EF benefits the learning and performance of racket sport skills, compared to IF and over control conditions. The findings suggest that coaches and practitioners should consider the adoption of EF to optimize racket skills performance, particularly in novice or low-skilled athletes.

Motor competence in fundamental motor skills and sport skill learning: Testing the proficiency barrier hypothesis.

We investigated whether motor competence in fundamental motor skills influences sports motor skill learning. Motor competence in fundamental motor skills related to the overhead volleyball serve (i.e., throwing and volleying) was evaluated in 38 children (aged 9-10yrs) and participants were divided into lower and higher motor competence groups. The groups practiced the volleyball serve under random or constant-random conditions during an acquisition phase and then assessed in pre-test, intermediate, and retention tests. A three-way repeated-measures ANOVA showed performance improvement from pre-test to retention test only for high motor competence groups in fundamental motor skills. Initial competence in fundamental motor skills influences sport skills learning and demonstrates a potential proficiency barrier to learning complex-sports motor skills.

Utilization of Audio-visual Aids in the Teaching of Sports Concepts for Sustainable Development in Nigeria

This paper looked at audio-visual aids in the teaching of sport concepts for sustainable development in Nigeria. The study sought to find out whether department, levels of study, ages of students and genders influence the utilization of audio-visual aids in the day-today teaching of sport concepts and skills, thereby enabling sustainable development in Nigeria. The researcher observed that audio-visual equipment were not available for teaching concepts and skills such as hurdles, throws, games and so on. This posed challenges to sustainable and effective learning. A total of one hundred and fifty respondents were sampled for the study using purposive sampling technique. The respondents were drawn from Department of Human Kinetics and Health Education within the Bamidele Olumilua University of Education, Science and Technology, Ikere Ekiti, Nigeria. The instrument for data collection was a self-structured questionnaire. Hypotheses were formulated and tested using inferential statistics of ANOVA and t-test at 0.05 level of confidence. It was found that department influenced application of hearing and visual-aids in learning of sport skills while levels of study, age and gender did not. It was therefore recommended that Departments of Human Kinetics and Health Education should revolutionize teaching and practical classes using materials for sight and hearing aids by updating classroom facilities in the department in form of ICT by making provisions for interactive television, computers, internet and public address system that will enhance retention of concepts in the learners thereby ensuring sustainable development.

Effect of positive and negative dimensions of mental imagery and self-talk on learning of soccer kicking skill

Background and Study Aim. Mental imagery and self-talk are two important mental skills that are used for improvement of performance and learning of motor and sport skills. This study aimed to investigate the effect of positive/negative mental imagery and positive/negative self-talk on learning of soccer kicking skill.
 Material and Methods. Participants included 48 young soccer player students. Participants were soccer player students with mean age 18.44 and SD=.88 years. After selecting the sample and filling out the personal detail form, the imagery and self-talk instructions, the method of completing mental imagery questionnaire, Moore-Christine kick-skill test instructions, and principles of free kick at soccer were explained to participants. Then, the mental imagery test and kick-skill test were run in 4 blocks of 4 attempts and the results were recorded. Based on their pre-test scores, the participants were divided into 4 groups. The acquisition sessions were held for 3 weeks and 2 sessions per week, with 8 blocks of 4 trials (32 trials) per session. The data was analyzed using one-way ANOVA, mixed ANOVA, and two-way ANOVA tests at different learning stages (significance level= 0.05).
 Results. The results of data analysis showed that positive imagery and positive self-talk groups performed significantly better than negative imagery and negative self-talk groups. Also, due to the significance of interactive effect of imagery × training sessions, it was found that the positive imagery groups performed significantly better than negative imagery groups from the third session onwards.
 Conclusion. According to the results, it was recommended that trainers use this aspect of self-talk at early stages of training. Also, the positive imagery can be emphasized by increasing the training sessions in more skilled individual.

The effects of easy goals versus difficult goals on acquisition and retention of a sport skill in children with intellectual disability.

The purpose of the present study was to examine the effects of easy goals versus difficult goals on acquisition and retention of basketball free throws in children with intellectual disability. Twenty-one children with intellectual disability were randomly assigned to an easy goals or difficult goals group. The participants were required to improve their basketball free throws according to their own scores in the previous exercise session. More difficult goals were set for the difficult goals group than for the easy goals group. The groups exercised the task for nine sessions. Both groups performed pretest, acquisition, and retention tests. Results showed that participants with easy goals improved their performance while the participants with difficult goals failed to improve their performance. These findings indicate that providing children with intellectual disability with easy goals facilitates the process of sport skill learning.

The comparison of Linear and Nonlinear pedagogy on the learning of table tennis forehand stroke

Learning of sport skills is a complex process which is influenced by the individual differences. The purpose of the current research was to compare the Linear pedagogy and the Nonlinear pedagogy on the performance and learning of table tennis forehand stroke. This was a semi-experimental study that was carried out on 22 girls (9 - 11year). Random two groups after pre-test, participated in eight sessions to learn. Then, the immediate retention test was conducted, and after four weeks they took the delayed retention and transfer tests. Although, both groups had progress in accuracy scores also the Nonlinear group in all stages of post-intervention scored better marks, statistically, there was no significant difference between two groups (p>0.05). The results suggested that there are extra ways for learning, by searching and finding a proper movement solution can learn more easily, and recommends instructors to use new methods of learning.

The relation of physical self-perceptions of competence, goal orientation, and optimism with students' performance calibration in physical education

Two studies were conducted to examine associations between students' calibration accuracy with their self-perceptions of competence (i.e., global self-worth, sport competence, perceived competence, and self-efficacy), goal orientation, and dispositional optimism and pessimism. Participants were 138 (study 1) and 236 (study 2) fifth and sixth grade students. An index of absolute accuracy of performance prediction was calculated based on students' predicted and actual performance in a basketball shooting test. Person-related factors were measured with self-reported questionnaires. Results showed no associations between absolute accuracy and students' global self-worth, sport competence, optimism and pessimism (study 1) while students' absolute accuracy was associated with their task orientation, self-efficacy, and perceived competence (study 2). An overconfidence effect was also found in both studies. These results were discussed with reference to previous evidence and views of calibration research in academic, sport, and physical education domains. Interactions between person-related factors and calibration and their effects on the development of students' self-regulated learning of sport skills in physical education were also highlighted.

Can Visual Illusions Be Used to Facilitate Sport Skill Learning?

ABSTRACTRecently it has been reported that practicing putting with visual illusions that make the hole appear larger than it actually is leads to longer-lasting performance improvements. Interestingly, from a motor control and learning perspective, it may be possible to actually predict the opposite to occur, as facing a smaller appearing target should enforce performers to be more precise. To test this idea the authors invited participants to practice an aiming task (i.e., a marble-shooting task) with either a visual illusion that made the target appear larger or a visual illusion that made the target appear smaller. They applied a pre–post test design, included a control group training without any illusory effects and increased the amount of practice to 450 trials. In contrast to earlier reports, the results revealed that the group that trained with the visual illusion that made the target look smaller improved performance from pre- to posttest, whereas the group practicing with visual illusions that made the target appear larger did not show any improvements. Notably, also the control group improved from pre- to posttest. The authors conclude that more research is needed to improve our understanding of whether and how visual illusions may be useful training tools for sport skill learning.

Stereotype threat affects the learning of sport motor skills

Studies have shown that stereotypical conditions can affect the performance of academic as well as motor skills (for a review see Chalabaev, Sarrazin, Fontayne, Boiché, & Clément-Guillotin, 2013). The objective of the present study was to investigate the influence of stereotype threat on the learning of a sport skill in women. Participants practiced 15 trials of a soccer dribbling task, and their learning was observed in immediate and delayed retention tests. Before practice, participants were divided into two groups which received instructions introducing the task as either involving athletic speed/power capacities, where women normally perform worse than men (stereotypical condition – ST), or as involving agility/coordination capacities, where women normally can perform similarly than men (nullified-stereotype condition – NST). They also filled out questionnaires measuring self-efficacy. Participants of the ST group showed significant lower motor performance and learning, as well as lower self-efficacy levels, than the NST group. The findings provide evidence that the learning of sport skills can be affected by stereotypical conditions. They add to the growing evidence of the impact of social-cognitive and affective factors on motor skill learning.

Children's learning of tennis skills is facilitated by external focus instructions

The present study examined the effects of instructions promoting external versus internal foci of attention on the learning of a tennis forehand stroke in 11-year old children. Three groups of participants practiced hitting tennis balls at a target. External focus group participants were instructed to direct their attention to the movement of the racquet, while participants in the internal focus group were asked to direct their attention to the movements of their arm. Participants in a control group did not receive attentional focus instructions. Two days after the practice phase (60 trials), learning was assessed in retention and transfer tests. The results showed that the external focus group demonstrated greater accuracy in hitting a target relative to the two other groups in retention, and relative to the internal focus group in transfer. We conclude that instructions inducing an external focus of attention can enhance children's sport skill learning.

Visual illusions can facilitate sport skill learning.

Witt, Linkenauger, and Proffitt (Psychological Science, 23, 397-399, 2012) demonstrated that golf putting performance was enhanced when the hole was surrounded by small circles, making it look larger, relative to when it was surrounded by large circles, making it look smaller. In the present study, we examined whether practicing putting with small or large surrounding circles would have not only immediate effects on performance, but also longer-lasting effects on motor learning. Two groups of nongolfers practiced putting golf balls to a 10.4-cm circle ("hole") from a distance of 2m. Small or large circles were projected around the hole during the practice phase. Perception of hole size was affected by the size of the surrounding circles. Also, self-efficacy was higher in the group with the perceived larger hole. One day after practice, participants performed the putting task, but without visual illusions (i.e., a retention test). Putting accuracy in retention was greater for the group that had practiced with the perceived larger hole. These findings suggest that the apparently larger target led to the more effective learning outcome.

Applying Serious Games to Motor Learning in Sport

Considering the wide use of Serious Games in application fields like cognitive learning, health education and rehabilitation and the recent developments of sensor and interface technology it is surprising that applications to motor learning in sport are rare. The aim of this study is to examine whether a specific learning effect can be elicited by training with a commercial exergame (Nintendo Wii Sports Resort). A sample of 23 young club basketball players attended either a virtual training (VT) or a real training (RT) of basketball throws. Training consisted of 750 throws distributed to 10 training units. As a result, VT and RT groups improved in virtual and real performance, but only the RT group transferred training to the virtual condition. Furthermore, the RT group enjoyed training more than the VT group. As a conclusion, added values of Serious Games in sport skill learning may take effect only under certain conditions.

Perspectives on Learning Styles in Motor and Sport Skills

We present the perspective that while coaches and instructors commonly adapt learning styles to maximize training outcomes, there has been little to no empirical support for the efficacy of this practice. Learning styles is a learner’s preferred mode (e.g., visual, verbal) of taking in and processing new information. Although it is a relevant topic for the learning of motor and sport skills, few studies have used an appropriate methodology to test the effectiveness of learning style-based instruction. We highlight the need for a learning style assessment tool specific to motor skills and call for a test of the learning style hypothesis, the claim that learners will benefit from instruction that is tailored to their individual learning style. To this end, we suggest methodological guidelines.

Efeitos do conhecimento de performance visual em uma frequência autocontrolada na aprendizagem de uma habilidade esportiva

The aim of this study was to investigate the effect of visual knowledge of performance (KP) in a self-controlled frequency in sport skill learning by children. Thirty volunteers aged between eleven and thirteen years-old were distributed in three groups: self-controlled, which received visual KP when asked; yoked, which received KP as self-controlled group, and control group, without visual KP. The experimental design had acquisition phase with two sessions of eighty trials, immediate transfer test, ten minutes after acquisition phase and delayed transfer test, 48 hours after immediate test, both with 10 trials. The measures were scored at a target and from movement pattern. Results did not confirm the effects of self-controlled frequency of visual KP.

Efeitos do conhecimento de performance visual em uma frequência autocontrolada na aprendizagem de uma habilidade esportiva - doi: 10.4025/reveducfis.v22i2.9952

The aim of this study was to investigate the effect of visual knowledge of performance (KP) in a self-controlled frequency in sport skill learning by children. Thirty volunteers aged between eleven and thirteen years-old were distributed in three groups: self-controlled, which received visual KP when asked; yoked, which received KP as self-controlled group, and control group, without visual KP. The experimental design had acquisition phase with two sessions of eighty trials, immediate transfer test, ten minutes after acquisition phase and delayed transfer test, 48 hours after immediate test, both with 10 trials. The measures were scored at a target and from movement pattern. Results did not confirm the effects of self-controlled frequency of visual KP.

Effects of different variations of mental and physical practice on sport skill learning in adolescents with mental retardation

The purpose of this study was to investigate the effect of five variations of imagery and physical practice on learning of Basketball free throws in adolescents with mental retardation (AWMR). Forty AWMR were randomly assigned to five groups and performed a variation of practice: physical practice, mental practice, physical practice followed by mental practice, mental practice followed by physical practice, and no practice. The groups exercised the task for 24 sessions. Following training, posttest and retention test were taken. All variations of practice resulted in performance improvement, yet the mental practice followed by physical practice resulted in better improvement. The results suggest that mental practice associated with physical practice results in an outstanding performance improvement in AWMR.

The Influence of Functional Constraints on Sport-Skill Learning in a Senior Adult

A large volume of research has focused on the benefits of appropriate health-related fitness activities for older adults (Spirduso, 1994). Although lifetime participation in sports is a common alternative to fitness activities, few studies have examined the subjective, personal experience underlying initial sport-skill development. The purpose of this study was to illustrate how dynamical-systems theory is a useful lens through which to examine the evolution of golf skill in 1 senior adult participant. Qualitative data collected over 7 months focused on a personal diary, formal and informal interviews, videotape analyses, and observational field notes. The development of golf skill was bounded by a series of functional constraints, as well as limiting factors connected to the task and the environment. The results illustrate the theoretical proposition (NewelI. 1986) that skill learning arises from and is structured by a system of interacting constraints.

International symposium on motor learning and movement behavior: Motor learning and training of sport skills

International symposium on motor learning and movement behavior: Motor learning and training of sport skills

International symposium on motor learning and movement behavior— motor learning and training of sport skills

International symposium on motor learning and movement behavior— motor learning and training of sport skills