Sport Psychology Interventions Research Articles

The Oxford Handbook of Sport and Performance Psychology

INTRODUCTION This book was “built on the principle of examining the broad spectrum of research and practice on the psychology of excellent performance, in sport and in many other domains” (p. xix). With a total of forty chapters, it is divided into the following six parts: The Nature and Scope of Sport and Performance Psychology, Individual Psychological Processes in Performance, Social Psychological Processes in Performance, Human Development and Performance, Interventions in Sport and Performance Psychology, and Future Directions. The editor, Shane Murphy is a licensed psychologist and Professor in Psychology at Western Connecticut State University, USA, having previously been head of the United States Olympic Committee (USOC)’s Sport Psychology Department (1987-1994 (p. ix). Many of the chapters are essentially up-to-date, authoritative reviews of well-trodden areas of sport psychology; e.g., Motivation: Self-Determination Theory and Performance in Sport (Martyn Standage), Leadership and Manifestations of Sport (Packianathan Chelladurai), Moral Behavior in Sport (Maria Kavussanu), and A Developmental Approach to Sport Expertise (Jean Cote and Bruce Abernethy). This book review focuses on three chapters in the book which are concerned with bridging the gap between sport psychology and performance psychology.

A Review of Single-Case Research in Sport Psychology 1997–2012: Research Trends and Future Directions

Single-case research methods are an important facet of applied sport psychology because they provide a framework for researchers and practitioners to outline intervention effects across time with individuals or groups. This paper reviews the research published since Hrycaiko and Martin's (1996) milestone overview of single-case research in sport psychology. Specifically, we examined the literature between 1997 and 2012 and located 66 studies that met our inclusion criteria of assessing interventions in sport psychology. The review summarizes the body of research, outlines trends, considers the limitations of the extant literature, and identifies areas that require further investigation for future single-case research.

‘I can’t lose this match!’: CBT and the sport psychologist

The present article provides an illustrative case study of how sport psychologists can adopt a cognitive behavioural therapy (CBT) approach in their work with clients. It provides a step-by-step overview, based upon the recommendations of Padesky and Greenberger’sMind Over Mood(1995), to illustrate how CBT techniques can be used with an athlete experiencing performance anxiety. The authors argue that CBT texts such asMind Over Moodcan strengthen and guide interventions in sport psychology, as they currently do in counselling psychology.

Assessing Mental Skill and Technique Use in Applied Interventions: Recognizing and Minimizing Threats to the Psychometric Properties of the TOPS

Drawing from the experiences of the authors in developing, conducting, and evaluating sport psychology interventions, several considerations are highlighted and recommendations offered for effective psychometric assessment. Using the Test of Performance Strategies (TOPS; Thomas, Murphy, & Hardy, 1999) as a working example, opportunities for bias to undermine a measure’s validity and reliability are discussed with reference to a respondent’s four cognitive processes: (a) comprehension, (b) retrieval, (c) decision-making, and (d) response generation. Further threats to an instrument’s psychometric properties are highlighted in the form of demand characteristics athletes perceive in the environment. With these concerns in mind, several recommendations are made relating to the process of questionnaire administration and how possible compromises to the psychometric soundness of measures used in applied interventions can be minimized.

Elite Refereeing in Professional Soccer: A Case Study of Mental Skills Support

Refereeing a high-profile soccer game requires a unique blend of sports-specific knowledge, physical abilities, and mental skills. While mental skills instruction has been seen as an integral element of performance enhancement in elite sport, the application of sport psychology intervention for referees and match officials is far less prominent. This case study briefly describes the levels of stress associated with refereeing elite soccer matches and the impact of stress on officiating performance and subsequent self-confidence of soccer referees. The work then outlines the program of mental skills intervention that was delivered to an elite soccer referee working within the Scottish professional soccer leagues. The program of mental skills embraced five stages: (1) Education; (2) Assessment/ profiling; (3) Mental skill learning; (4) Application of mental skills in context; and (5) Evaluation, and this article centers on the way in which each of these stages was carried out. The case study describes how the mental skills instruction program was associated with improved refereeing performance, and provides some tentative advice for sport psychology practitioners who may wish to provide consultancy services within the domain of sports officiating.

Professional Philosophy: Inside the Delivery of Sport Psychology Service at Team Denmark

Professional Philosophy: Inside the Delivery of Sport Psychology Service at Team Denmark The field of applied psychology has developed rapidly in Europe in the past four decades. In Denmark, the sports psychology profession has been characterized by a diversity of approaches with little overarching consensus on the professional philosophy and interventions strategies among consultants in the field. In 2008, Team Denmark established a sport psychology team with the aim to enhance the quality and consistency of applied sport psychology services. The team began their work by creating a professional philosophy. This paper describes the rationale, content, and implications of this philosophy, including: (a) basic beliefs and values; (b) theories of intervention and behaviour change; (c) objectives of the sport psychology intervention, (d) the content and focus of the interventions, and (e) sport psychological services and methods. High quality service requires coherence across all five levels of the philosophy. Implications of introducing the professional philosophy include a more unified service delivery across Denmark and the fact that sport psychology services are demanded more than ever in Danish elite sport.

Psychological Functioning as a Moderator of the MAC Approach to Performance Enhancement

The purpose of the present study was to investigate the impact of subclinical psychological difficulties, as assessed by the Multilevel Classification System for Sport Psychology (MCS-SP; Gardner & Moore, 2004b, 2006), on the efficacy of the Mindfulness-Acceptance-Commitment (MAC; Gardner & Moore, 2004a, 2007) performance enhancement intervention. Thirteen collegiate field hockey and volleyball athletes participated in a 7-week MAC protocol, and their results were compared to those of a control group of 7 same-sport athletes. Nonparametric analysis of the data offers additional support for MAC as a strategy for enhancing the athletic performance of collegiate athletes and suggests the importance of the accurate assessment of subclinical psychological difficulties to ensure the successful application of sport psychology interventions. In essence, these results suggest that the presence or absence of subclinical psychological difficulties may serve as a moderating factor in performance enhancement efforts.

A Preliminary Investigation into Pre-Competitive Mood States of Advanced and Novice Equestrian Dressage Riders

Emotional composure is considered critical in equestrian sports. The aim of the study was to investigate pre-competitive mood states in dressage riders. Thirteen advanced and 13 novice British riders completed the Profile of Mood States Questionnaire (POMS) prior to competing. A multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) was performed to test for a main effect of mood states on competence levels, with subsequent investigation for significant differences of individual mood states using Bonferroni adjusted alpha levels. Levels of confusion were nearing significance between advanced and novice riders, suggesting greater processing efficacy and task-specific concentration for more advanced riders. Sport psychological interventions for equestrians should focus on lowering levels of confusion and increasing task-orientated focus in novice riders.

A Qualitative Analysis of Holistic Sport Psychology Consultants’ Professional Philosophies

Incorporating the holistic development of the athlete into an applied sport psychology intervention has been addressed in the literature (e.g., Bond, 2002; Ravizza, 2002). How sport psychology consultants actually practice holistic sport psychology remains unclear. The purpose of this research was to provide a clarification as to what holistic sport psychology is and examine the beliefs, values, theoretical paradigms, and models of practice of holistic sport psychology consultants’ professional philosophies (Poczwardowski, Sherman, & Ravizza, 2004). Qualitative interviews with five purposefully selected holistic sport psychology consultants were conducted. In general, holistic consulting can be interpreted to mean: (a) managing the psychological effects to the athlete’s performance from nonsport domains; (b) developing the core individual beyond their athletic persona; and (c) recognizing the dynamic relationship between an athlete’s thoughts, feelings, physiology, and behavior. The corresponding beliefs, values, theoretical paradigms, and models of practice of holistic consultants were also presented.

Video Games, Competition and Exercise: A New Opportunity for Sport Psychologists?

The increasing influence of technology on sports and games is examined and the widespread popularity of video and computer games is identified as an opportunity for sport and exercise psychologists. Modern video and computer games can involve considerable physical activity and social competition and are thus a suitable subject for the application of sport psychology theories and intervention methods. A brief overview of some of the existing research from other fields on video and serious interactive games is presented. The advantages of studying competition, cooperation and exercise in video game play include application of existing theories to new areas, methodological research advantages, and new applied opportunities for practitioners. Sport and exercise psychologists are encouraged to research the long-term viability of studying important sport and exercise psychology topics such as aggression, teamwork and psychological skills using video game and related technologies.

Pre-competitive levels of arousal and self-confidence among elite and non-elite equestrian riders

Research into other sports has shown that excessive levels of anxiety can undermine motor function during performance. This study aims to investigate the effects of anxiety and self-confidence on equestrian performance. Forty riders (12 male, 28 female; 15 elite, 25 non-elite; 12 dressage, 17 showjumping, 11 eventing) completed the Revised Competitive Sport Anxiety Inventory 2 (CSAI-2R), which measures the levels of somatic and cognitive anxiety (arousal) as well as levels of self-confidence. Two-way between-subjects MANOVA tests were used to examine competence-by-discipline interactions and gender-by-discipline interactions in CSAI-2R scores. Post hoc analysis was conducted using one-way univariate ANOVA tests. Spearman's rank correlation tests were conducted between each of the CSAI-2R subscales according to competence, discipline and gender. Most important findings include lower somatic arousal and higher self-confidence in elite compared with non-elite riders, with 15.2 ± 4.4 vs. 19.0 ± 5.0, F1,34 = 5.8, P < 0.05; 31.5 ± 4.8 vs. 25.1 ± 7.4, P < 0.01, respectively. Negative correlations between cognitive arousal and self-confidence were found among elite riders, non-elite riders, showjumpers and female riders (r = − 0.69, P < 0.005; r = − 0.41, P < 0.05; r = − 0.52, P < 0.05; r = − 0.33, P < 0.05). Greater riding-specific skills in the elite rider may result in increased self-confidence. Lower levels of somatic anxiety may further increase fine motor skills in elite riders. Practical implications are that non-elite riders would benefit from sport psychological interventions increasing levels of self-confidence and reducing symptoms of somatic arousal to improve performance.

Personal Goal Management Intervention and Mood States in Soccer Academies

The aim of this study was to evaluate the effects of a personal goal-based intervention on positive and negative moods among young athletes at a soccer academy. Study participants (N =22) were randomized into either a treatment group, which participated in a personal goal-management program (Bouffard, Labelle, Dubé, & Lapierre, 1999), or a neutral-task control group. Participants’ mood states were measured every 3 weeks. Results indicated significant postintervention group differences in positive and negative moods states, with the treatment group reporting higher levels of positive moods and lower levels of negative moods. A significant within-group difference over time was also found for the treatment group, indicating an increase in positive mood states and decrease in negative mood states as the program progressed. Findings from this study are used to inform recommendations for sport psychology interventions that use specific goal management procedures to facilitate positive emotional states among young athletes.

The Role of a Clinical Psychologist in a Division I Athletics Program

In recent years, Division I athletics programs have hired counseling or clinical psychologists as a resource for student-athletes who need assistance with clinical issues, personal difficulties, and performance issues. This article documents the evolution of this type of position at Virginia Tech and includes a discussion of the goals of the clinical sport psychologist position, an overview of the daily activities the position entails, and a discussion of the issues that comprise the assessment, conceptualization, and treatment of student-athlete concerns. Models for conceptualizing and delivering sport psychology interventions are also discussed. Evidence indicates that having access to a mental health professional familiar with the issues facing college athletes can be instrumental in helping many of these student-athletes achieve success in the university setting.

Sport Psychology in an Urban High School: Overview of a Two-Year Collaboration

The purpose of the article is to provide an overview of an applied sport psychology intervention designed for high school student-athletes. To illustrate the process, as well as the product, each year of the two-year project is presented separately. Problems encountered with this type of intervention, such as working in the high school environment, as well as the lessons learned, are discussed so that others interested in working with high school student-athletes can benefit. Finally, the authors provide suggestions for future directions related to sport psychology in the high school setting.

Recommendations for Successfully Integrating Sport Psychology into Athletic Therapy

Although sport psychology is still a relatively new concept in athletic therapy, there is a wealth of evidence to suggest that sport-psychology interventions can positively influence sports-injury rehabilitation.'Sport-psychology interventions during rehabilitation have been associated with positive outcomes including increased adherence, reduced stress and anxiety, and enhanced recovery rates. Despite these findings, however, there appears to be relatively little use of such interventions by athletic trainers and other sports-injury rehabilitation professionals. Several reasons have been suggested to explain this low rate of use, including a lack of knowledge of the potential benefits of sport psychology among both athletes and rehabilitation professionals, a lack of access to sport-psychology consultants or services, and the perceived stigma among athletes associated with consulting a sport-psychology consultant. In order to provide injured athletes with this potentially beneficial source of support, barriers to the use of sport-psychology services must be diminished.

Understanding Sport Behavior: A Cognitive-Affective Processing Systems Approach

Recent developments in social-cognitive personality theory have promising applications to sport psychology. Of special significance is Mischel and Shoda's (1995) description of the Cognitive-Affective Processing System (CAPS), a dynamic network of cognitive, affective, motivational, and behavior-generation units that interacts with situational factors to produce both coherence and cross-situational variability in behavior. Consistency in situation-behavior relations are demonstrated in individualized “behavioral signatures” of athletic coaches. The CAPS model has promise as a theoretical template within which domain-specific theoretical frameworks in sport psychology can be incorporated and expanded. To illustrate the potential utility of the CAPS model for construct elaboration, assessment of individual differences, and interventions in sport psychology, I apply it to an analysis of mental toughness and to performance anxiety, achievement goal theory, idiographic assessment, and psychological skills training. Finally, I suggest that “bottom-up” approaches to identifying causal mechanisms, exemplified by the CAPS and other social-cognitive models, can have considerable potential for theoretical, empirical, and applied advances in sport psychology.

Exploring the relationship between physical activity, psychological well-being and physical self- perception in different exercise groups

The value of various forms of physical activity, exercise and sport in health promotion is universally acknowledged. This research compared psychological wellbeing and physical self-perception of persons who regularly engage in various forms of physical activity, exercise and sport with a control group of non-exercisers. Different physical activities selected included health club exercises (mainly resistance training), hockey (a team sport), and running (mainly aerobic exercise). Main findings were that persons engaging in regular physical activity perceived themselves as having more autonomy, personal growth, environmental mastery, purpose in life, positive relations with others, self-acceptance, sport competence and conditioning than non-exercisers. Regular exercisers also attached more importance to sport, conditioning, body attractiveness and strength than non-exercisers. Hockey players perceived themselves as having more positive relations with others and sport competence than either health club members or runners. The relevance of these findings and further implications for health and sport psychological research and interventions were discussed. Keywords : physical activity, psychological well-being, physical self-perception South African Journal for Research in Sport, Physical Education and Recreation Vol. 27(1) 2005: 59-74

Physiotherapists’ perceptions of sport psychology intervention in professional soccer

This study investigated the attitudes and perceptions of physiotherapists working in professional soccer toward sport psychology intervention in injury rehabilitation. The Physiotherapist and Sport Psychology Questionnaire (Hemmings & Povey, 2002) was distributed to all professional soccer clubs in England and Wales. Thirty‐nine of the questionnaires were returned fully completed. In addition to this, 10 of the 39 respondents participated in semi‐structured interviews designed to further examine attitudes and perceptions in this area. It was found that the physiotherapists believed that negative psychological reactions to sports injury were fairly commonplace, with stress/anxiety being the most commonly cited reaction. Fifty‐one percent of the physiotherapists reported having referred an athlete to a sport psychologist. The stigma associated with consulting a psychologist was found to be a barrier to referral. It was suggested that more education as to the role of sport psychology in injury rehabilitation is required, along with the development of a sport psychology referral network

Research and intervention in sport psychology: New perspectives on an inherent conflict

Most research publications in sport psychology are of only limited use for solving the practical problems of athletes and coaches. This paper focuses on two major problems responsible for this apparent gap between research and its application. First, most studies in applied settings are conducted for research purposes only. Second, the transfer of sport psychological knowledge gained in laboratory and field studies to actual applications is impeded by limitations due to settings, study design, artificial performance tasks, and nonathletic samples. A problem‐centered approach is proposed that could bridge this gap by integrating applied research and intervention. Action research provides an example for such a solution. This procedure enhances the acceptance of sport psychological interventions and subsequently improves their quality.

Application of the Transtheoretical Model to Psychological Skills Training

In an effort to apply the transtheoretical model of change to the area of psychological skills training, questionnaires measuring stage of change, decisional balance, and self-efficacy were developed and cross-validated on two samples of NCAA Division I intercollegiate student-athletes. The measures showed good internal reliability and construct validity and exhibited hypothesized functional relationships with each other. In addition, the stage of change measure predicted sport psychology consultations initialed by athletes during the year following questionnaire administration and may prove to be a useful tool in predicting subsequent initiation of individual sport psychology consultation. Several potentially useful lines of research are discussed and recommendations are made regarding the development of sport psychology interventions tailored according to athletes’ stage of change.